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A 







VIEW OF THE HEAVENS, 

OR 

FAMILIAR LESSONS 

ON 
WITH A 

CELESTIAL MAP, 




BY WHICH THE CONSTELLATIONS CAN BE EASILY* FOUND; 

ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 



V 



BY REV. AMOS PETTENGJLL, 

PASTOR OF THE CHURCH AT SALEM BRIDGE, CONN"U 



Lord-, how manifold are thy works ! In wisdom hsa*i- 
thoii made them all.— David, 



I\EW-HAVEN : 

PJU^TEP ANJ? PUBLISHED BY NATHAN WHITING 

1826. 



% 







DISTRICT OF COKYECTICUT, S$. 

BE IT REMEMBERED, Thai on th< 

lentil day of October, in the fiftieth year o 
the independence of the United Stales o 
America, Amos Pettkngill, of the saiU 
District, ha'h deposited in this office the title 
of a Book, the right whereof he claims d- 
Author in the words following, 10 wit : "A View of the 
Heavens, or familiar lessons on Astronomy; with a Celes- 
tial Map, hy which the Constellations can be easily found 
Adapted to the use of Schools. By Rev. Amos Pettengill, 
Pastor of the Church at Salem Bridge, Conn. O Lord, how 
manifold are thy works ! In wisdom hast thou made them all 
—David." 

In conformity to the act of Congress of the United States, 
entitled, " An act, for the encouragement of learning, bj Be 
curing the copies of Maps, Charts and Books, to the authors 
and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein men- 
tioned." And also to the act, eutitled, *' An act supplemen- 
tary to an act, entitled ' An act for the encouragement of 
learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, 
to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times 
therein mentioned/ and extending the benefits thereof lo lh( 
arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other 
prints." 

CHAS. A. INGERSOLL, 
Clerk of the District of Connecticut 
A true copy of Record, examined and sealed by me, 

CHAS. A. INGERSOLL, 
Clerk of the District of Cortn 






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PREFACE 



Many valuable Treatises on Astronomy 
have been published, and laudable efforts 
made to disseminate the knowledge of this 
important^subject. But a great proportion 
of the community still remain uninformed* 
They annually purchase an Almanack, and 
receive some assistance from it ; but much 
of it is unintelligible to them, and of course 
uninteresting and useless. Being in a meas- 
ure precluded from the means of instruction, 
they imagine themselves to be incapable of 
understanding this science, and take it for 
granted that they are inevitably doomed to 
remain in the dark. This impression leads 
them to treat the subject with indifference, 
Their indifference would be less lamentable^ 
were it not attended with erroneous views, 
and superstitious notions, which tend, to 
Weaken and contract the mind. 



PREFi 



This evil cannot be removed at once ; but 
it may be gradually prevented. It is not 
necessary for this purpose, that the rising 
generation should all become extensively ac- 
quainted with Astronomy ; but it is nec< 
sary that they should understand the first 
principles of this science. Newton, Herschel, 
and other eminent Astronomers have so pre- 
pared the way, that any person of ordinary 
abilities, may soon acquire this knowledge. 
He cannot demonstrate the laws by which 
the heavenly bodies move, without the know- 
ledge of Mathematics ; but he can find the 
Planets and constellations, and know what 
discoveries others have made. He can so 
extend his views, as to be able to see, and 
explain the reason of those occurrences, 
which, by many, are deemed unaccountable 
and ominous. He can do this without ex- 
tensive reading and study, and without relin- 
quishing his ordinary employments. But he 
cannot do it without thinking. His mind 
must be active — his attention fixed, and suil 
ably directed* 



MtEFACE* & 

Astronomy is eminently calculated to call 
into vigorous exercise, the noblest powers of 
the mind, so as to exclude low and debasing 
thoughts. It is suited to excite, and gratify 
the curiosity of the young — to turn away 
their eyes from beholding vanity — to extin- 
guish their unhallowed desires, and thus to 
prevent them from disturbing others, and de- 
stroying themselves. 

If they can be induced to view the starry 
heavens with sufficient attention to learn some 
of the Constellations, they will acquire a lively 
interest in the subject, and pursue it with de- 
light This will prepare, and dispose them 
to extend their acquaintance with the science, 
which is so peculiarly adapted to enlarge 
and elevate their minds. To encourage and 
aid them in this delightful employment, this 
Map of the heavens was planned ; after fruit- 
less attempts bad long been made to induce 
some other person to undertake it. It was 
intended to be a substitute for Celestial 
Globes, which are too expensive and unwield- 
ly for common use. By the suggestion^ 

I* 



S 



TEE FACE 



and advice of several literary gentlemen, ibis 
Treatise was added. This was intended to 
embrace nearly all the first principles of 
Astronomy, and to discuss them so familiar- 
ly, as that all might understand it, and so 
concisely as that none might be discouraged 
from reading it. Several additions have 
been made since the recommendations were 
received ; but none which affect the positions 
it first contained* 

It has been carefully corrected accord- 
ing to the most approved authorities, and 
the critical remarks of many scientific men, 
to whom it has been exhibited. But still it 
will doubtless need emendation. Any inti- 
mations, which may contribute to its im- 
provement, will be thankfully received. 



INTRODUCTION. 



It is not the design of the Bible to explain the 
laws of nature ; but to teach us what we must do 
to be saved. It frequently alludes to the natural 
heavens, and speaks of them according to their 
appearance, and leaves us to extend our acquaint- 
ance with them by such means as Providence af- 
fords us. 

Whether the history of creation, which the Bi- 
ble gives, relates to the fixed stars, or only to the 
solar system is not certain. But it is certain, 
that He who built all things is God.* By his 
Spirit he hath garnished the heavens.i 

It is his work that now claims your attention r 
The stars, toward which he directed Abraham to 
look, that he might realize his inability to number 
them, are presented to your view. The same 
Constellations that ancient saints and prophets 
observed, continue to make their appearance ; 
and to call on us, as they pass, to seek him, that 
maketh the seven stars and Orion.\ You often sea 

* Heb. iik 4. i Job xxvl 13* t Amos v. d. 



S INTRODUCTION. 

the same moon and stars that excited devotion in 
the heart of the Psalmist, The heavens still de- 
clare the glory of God, and the firmament show- 
eth his handy work.* 

While we contemplate his power, wisdom an*t 
goodness, as they are manifested through the visi- 
ble creation, let us fear and adore his great name ; 
and commit the keeping of our souls to him in 
well-doing, as to a faithful Creator. 

* Psalm xix. 1. 



LESSON t 

THE EARTH. 

He stretcheth out the north over the empty place, -and hang* 
eth the earth upon nothing. — Job xxvi, 7. 

The earth is suspended in empty space, with 
nothing to support it, but the power of God. It 
is found to be a great globe or ball ; for 

1. The shadow of it appears round on the 
moon, when eclipsed. 

2. Many persons have sailed round it. 

3. The highest part of a ship at sea is seen 
first. 

4. As you travel north the sun and stars move 
toward the south, and as you travel south they 
move toward the north. This must be owing to 
the convexity of the earth ; for a million of miles^ 
on a horizontal plane, would occasion no varia- 
tion in the appearance of the fixed stars ; and but 
very little in that of the sun. 

5. The north pole becomes elevated as you 
travel north, which would not be the case if the 
earth were not round 

Mountains and vallies are so small in compar- 
ison with the earth, that they do not materially 
affect its shape. 

The earth is a little flatted at its north and 
south ends. It ought to extend seventeen miles 
farther each way, to be entirely romid. 



lO THE EARTH. 

Should you continue to travel in any direo 
tion you would come round the earth to this place 
again, and see the heavens over your head all the 
way. Toward them is upward, and toward the 
earth is downward in every place. For God 
has estahlished a law, called the attraction of 
gravitation, by which every thing on and near 
the earth, is drawn toward its centre. This is 
the reason that material suhstances have weight. 
They are light or heavy according to the force 
by which they are attracted. If you throw a 
stone into the air, it will return because it is 
drawn back. This mysterious law, which ope- 
rates uniformly in every place and on every par- 
ticle of matter, is calculated to remind us of the 
immediate presence, power and goodness of God* 

QUESTIONS. 

What supports the earth ? 

What is the shape of the earth 1 

How does it appear that the earth is nearly round ? 

Why is toward the earth downward, and from the earth 
upward in every place ? ~r 

What is that law called, by which every thing on or 
near the earth is drawn toward its centre ? 

Of what is this iaw calculate4 to remind us ? 

N. B. For the explanation of terms relating 
to Astronomy look to the Glossary at the end of 
this book, 



<**& AND NIGHT. 11 

LESSON II. 

TflR DAILY REVOLUTION OF Tffc EARTK. 

While the earth remaineth, seed time and harvest, and cold 
and heat, and summer and winter, and day and night, 
shall not cease. — Genesis viii. 22. 

In this lesson your attention is called to the 
way in which God accomplishes his promise^ re- 
specting day and night. He does this by a gen- 
eral law, as he does every thing else, relating to 
the material universe. 

When he made the earth he caused it to roll 
round toward the east once in twentv-four hours ; 
and it has continued to roll in the same man- 
ner ever since. You do not perceive that it 
moves, because you partake of its motion. Were 
you to sail ever so rapidly on smooth water, you 
would not be conscious of moving. You might 
walk across the boat, and step into another boat 
that had the same motion ; or throw articles in- 
to it, or into the air, and all would seem as if you 
were at rest. But objects really at rest would 
appear to move in a direction contrary to that in 
which you were sailing. There are no objects 
around us, but what have the same motion with 
the earth, except the sun, moon and stars. These 
seem to move toward the west. It is absurd to 
suppose that they really do thus move. For such 
is their distance, that the sun must move more 
than six thousand miles, and the fixed stars many 



12 THE SUN. 

millions of miles every second, in ordet to per- 
form a revolution round the earth in twenty- 
four hours ; and they must do this without any 
known law, and even contrary to the known law,< 
of nature. 

Twilight is the reflection and the refraction of 
the suirs rays from the upper part of the atmos- 
phere. 

QUESTION'S 

How does God cause the succession of day and night ' 
Why do you not perceive the motion of the earth : 
Why do the heavenly bodies appear to move toward 

the west ? 

How does it appear that they do not really more thb> 

way ? 

What occasions the twilight ? 



LESSON III. 

THE REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH-ROUND THE StfN. 

The heavens declare the glory of God. In them hath ht 

set a tabernacle for (he sun. — Psalm xix. 4. 

The Sun is a great globe more than a million 
times larger than the earth. Its light and heat 
are probably occasioned by the combustion of 
gass in its atmosphere. It performs a rotation 
on its axis once in twenty-five days, as appeals 
from the dark spots on its surface ; and it is car- 
ried round in a small space, because it is ur 



THE ANNUAL REVOLUTION. IS 

tracted by the planets. But it always remains 
In that part of the heavens, where God at first 
placed it. Since material bodies attract one an- 
other in proportion to their respective nearness 
and quantities of matter, the Earth attracts the 
Sun and the Sun much more powerfully attracts 
the Earth. Heuce they would be drawn together, 
were not the Earth whirled round the Sun in a 
circle, which is called its Orbit. 

Thus the Earth has two motions, like a wheel, 
rolling round while it moves along. The imagi- 
nary line on whkh it rolls, is its Axis and the 
ends of the Axis its Poles. Its revolution on its 
Axis causes day and night ; and its revolution in 
its Orbit causes the seasons of the year. Its Or- 
bit is not a perfect circle ; for it is three millions 
of miles nearer to the Sun in the winter, than it 
is in the summer. 

To illustrate the law by which the Earth moves 
in its Orbit, hold a ball by a string, and let it re- 
ceive a stroke which would tend to throw it for- 
ward. Instead of taking that course it will re- 
volve round your hand in a circle. If you jerk 
the string every time it comes round so as to pre- 
serve the motion it first received, it will continue 
to revolve. Your hand represents the Sun, and 
the ball the Earth. The stroke which the ball 
received represents the force called the projec- 
tile force, which God gave the earth at crea- 
tion. The tendency which the ball has to fly off 
in every direction, as it whirls round, is the cen- 
trifugal force. The string, which prevents it, 
represents the centripetal force, or the Sun's 






14 THE ANNUAL REVOLUTION. 

attraction, which holds the Earth during its year- 
ly revolution. 

This ball would continue to revolve as the 
Earth does, without any motion of your hand, 
were it not retarded by the Earth's attraction. 
For it is a law of nature that a body at rest will 
never move, unless something moves it ; and that 
when once moved it will never stop, unless some- 
thing stops it. 

The Earth goes round the Sun in three hun- 
dred and sixty-live days and about six hours. 
These odd hours make a day in four years, which 
is added to February. When this is done the 
year is three hundred and sixty-six days long, 
and is called leap year. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the Sun ? What is its magnitude ? What mo 
fions has it ? What probably occasions its light and heat ; 

Does the Sun ever move from one part of the heavens 
to another ? 

Why does not the Earth fall to the Sun, or the Sun to 
Che Earth ? 

What are the Orbit, Axis and Poles of the Earth ? 

What motions has the Earth ? 

What are they called, and what do they occasion ? 

How would you illustrate the yearly revolution ? 

How the projectile, centrifugal and centripetal forces of 
the Earth ? 

Will a body in motion ever stop of itself ? 

Why is it necessary to move your hnud in order to keep 
a ball whirling round it ? 

How long is a year ? 

Why is a day added to February every fourth year 9 

What is the year then called I 



THE SEASONS, 15 

LESSON IV. 

THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR, 

O God, thou hast set all the borders of the earth : thou hast 
made summer and winter, — Psalm lxxiv. 17. 

Twice in a vear, the 20th of March and the 
23d of September, the Sun crosses the Equinoc- 
tial line, (the Equator.) Then the day and night 
are equal — each twelve hours long, all over the 
world, except at the Poles, where the Sun is seen 
by the refraction of its rays when it is below the 
horizon. Btft on the 21st of March the sun sets at 
the south end of the Earth, and does not rise there 
again for six months ; at the same time it rises at 
the north end, and does not set there again for 
six months. The reverse takes place on the 
24th of September. Our seasons, and the rela- 
tive length of our days and nights are directly 
opposite to those on the other side of the Equi- 
noctial line, or southern half of the Earth. 
When we have summer with long days, it is win- 
ter with long nights there. 

God makes summer and winter by causing the 
Earth's Axis to incline toward its Orbit, and the 
north Pole to point always toward one particular 
part of the heavens, during the yearly revolution, 
Near the part toward which it points there is a 
Star called the Polar Star. Neither the Earth 
nor the Sun is, in reality, any farther to the north 
ov south at one time than at another. 



16 



IRE SEASONS. 



Illustration. — Let a candle represent the Sun, and at 
ball the Earth. Run a small rod through the middle of 
the ball for its axis. Direct the north end toward the 
Polar Star. Holding it in this position carry it round the 
candle in a perpendicular circle, and you will see that the 
light shines half the time on the north end of it, and half 
the time on the south end ; and that at two points in the 
circle it shines at the same instant on both ends. 

Roll the ball round to the east three hundred and sixty- 
six times, while carrying it round the candle, and you 
will have likewise an illustration of the Earth's daily revo- 
lution. Carry it eastwardly ov^r the candle. 



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3?:.?o 

A" 

The Sun 
<r ■ .. ,^-s Summer uv , ->. 

Xamsrwruithe Q r ^,5W^J^ 

N 4'^ 



Sft 






tt 



s^ 



Bifuxd day St/Uaht 



In this Figure T is the Earth and N S its axis; 



EQUATION OF TIME. 



You will see by this experiment why the 
Earth which rolls round on its axis about four 
minutes less than twenty-four hours, must roll 
more than once round every day, in order to 



TBE REASONS. 1/ 

%rHig the same part toward the Sun. For it 
continually moves forward in its orbit. But it 
moves faster one half of the year, than it does the 
other half ; because it is more attracted by the 
"Sun ; and then it must turn more, and the time 
from noon to noon will be longer. 

Beside, the axis of the Earth is inclined to- 
ward the plane of its orbit. This tends to 
shorten the natural days from March to June ; to 
lengthen them from June to September ; to 
shorten them from September to December, and 
to lengthen them from December to March. — 
From the united operation of these two causes., 
four days in the year, the Sun and clock are to- 
gether, viz. about the 14th of April, l6th of 
June, 31st of A,'ttgdst and 24th of December. 
On all other days the Sun is either faster or 
slower than the clock. This difference is called 
the Equation of time. The Sun does not vary 
from twenty-four hours a half of a minute any 
single day ; but by an accumulation of difference 
it is sometimes as much as sixteen minutes faster 
or slower than the clock, which uniformly marks 
that time. 

Note. — The Earth has its slowest motion in the sum- 
mer ; because it is then at its greatest distance from the 
Sun. Hence it is eight days longer on this side of the 
Equator, than on the other. 

QUESTIONS, 

When does the Sun cross the Equinoctial line ? 
In what respect are these two days different from a]! 
others ? 



18 JrtiK MOON. 

How long is one end of the earth in darkness and the 
other in the light after these days ? 

How does the north pole always point ? 

What is the effect of this ? 

Does the Sun or Earth ever move toward the north or 
south ? 

How would you illustrate the waty in which the seasdns 
are produced 1 

What is Equation of time ? 

What two causes produce it ? 



LESSON V. 

THE MOON* 

He appoint eih the Moon for seasons. — Psalm civ. 19. 

The Moon is around body like the Earth, bur 
forty-nine times less. It receives all its light from 
the Sun. That part of it which is turned toward 
us is enlightened as far as it is turned toward the 
Sun. There are however darkish spots on its 
disk even when it is enlightened. These are oc- 
casioned by mountains and valleys, which inter- 
cept the Sun's rays. One of these mountains is 
a mile in height. Several of them are volcanoes.* 

* If you understand Geometry, and wish to find the 
height of a lunar mountain, first ascertain the distance and 
diameter of the Moon ; and when it is half illuminated, 
observe on its unenlightened part the bright spots, as they 
first appear. These are produced by the rays passing 
over the intermediate convex surface, and striking the 
tops of the mountains. Find the length of the line from 



THE MOON. 19 

The Moon goes round the Earth every month, 
;nd at the same time rolls over so as to present 
always the same side towards us. It moves with 
less rapidity in the winter than in the summer. 
For the Sun, being nearer to it retards its motion. 
The Orbit in which it moves round the earth is 
not a circle, but an ellipse. That point of it, 
which is nearest to the Earth, is called Perigee ; 
and that point, which is farthest, is Apogee. The 
Moon is therefore once in Perigee, and once in 
Apogee every month. Its monthly course ne- 
ver varies more than 5J degrees from the Sun's 
annual course. When full it is in nearly the 
sane direction the Sun was six months before. 
Half of the time it is on the north side of the 
Earth's Orbit; and half the time on the south side. 
Hence it crosses the plane of the Earth's Orbit 
twice a nionth, or once in about fourteen days. 
The points, where it crosses, are called its Nodes. 
The point, where it crosses from south to north, 
is its Ascending Node ; and where it crosses from 
north to south its Descending Node. These points 
move backward or toward the west 1° 38' a 
.mouth. That is, the Moon continues to cross far- 
ther and farther to the west, so as to perform a 
great revolution in about nineteen years ; when 

one of these spots to the line of illumination by the angle 
it subtends; and from each end of it, draw a line to the 
Moon's centre ; and you will have another right angled 
triangle, two sides of which and the included angle are 
known. Hence the other side from the bright spot to the 
centre of the moon is easily found. From this subtract 
the Moon's radius, and the remainder is the height of 
the mountain. 



20 ECLIPSES. 

it will a^ain cross where it now does. It is ne- 
cessary to observe this circumstance in order 
to calculate 

ECLIPSES. 

The Moon eclipses the Sun 7 when it comes 
between us and the Sun ; and it is eclipsed when 
it passes through the Earth's shadow. 

When it changes or is at the full, it is usually 
too far to the north or south to occasion au 
Eclipse. But when it changes it will eclipse ihe 
Sun ; if it is within 16 degrees of a Node; end 
when at the full it will be eclipsed, if it is within 
12 degrees of a Node. If it is at such times ex- 
actly in one of its Nodes, the eclipse will be totah 
or central. When it is in or near its Apogee at 
the time it centrally eclipses the Sun it produces 
what is called an annular eclipse. That i$, a 
ring of the Sun will be seen around it. For it is 
so far off that its disk will appear less than that of 
the Sun. There can never be more thau se\en, 
nor less than two eclipses in a year* The usual 
number is four. 

To illustrate the immediate cause of eclipses suspend a 
ball to the Sun, and then move your hand round it so as 
to represent the revolution of the Moon round the Earth. 
When your hand passes directly between the ball and 
Sun, the shadow will fall on the ball, and with respect to 
it the Sun will be eclipsed. When your hand passes to the 
opposite side it will receive the shadow of the ball, and be 
eclipsed as the Moon is when the Earth is directly be- 
tween it and the Sun. 



\ 



ECLIPSES. 



91 




In this Fig.'S is the Sun, m the Moon, E G the Earth, P 
the Earth's Penumbra, «6a part of the Earth's Orbit 
The straight lines are the sun's rays* 

Hote. — If the Moon be in or near its apogee, some of the 
rays from F and C, will cross one another between her and 
jlhe Earth, and then the Eclipse of the Sun will be annular, 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the Moon? What causes it to give light? 

What occasions its dark spots? What motions has it? 

What is its Perigee? Its Apogee? 

'How often is it in each of these points 1 

How long is it on each side of the Earth's Orbit at a 
*£ime? 

How much farther does it go sometimes to the north and 
$outh than the Sun ever does? 

What are its Nodes? Its Ascending Node? 

Its Descending Node? How often is it in a Node? 

How long are its Nddes in performing a revolution 
around the heavens ? 

Why does it run high when full in the winter ? 

Why does it run low when full in the summer? 

What causes an eclipse of the Sun ? Of the Moon? 

When does each of these eclipses happen ? 

Why is there not always an eclipse at the change and 
full of the Moon? 

HIow will you illustrate the immediate cause of eclipses? 

lioTE. — Astronomers have furnished Tables by which 
wny; one may learn to calculate Eclipses. But it is not 



22 THE INFLL^ENCE OP THE MOON.- 

expedient for persons in ordinary circumstances to aN 
tempt it. For the advantage they would derive from it^ 
would by no means compensate them for the time and 
study, that are necessary to render the process familiar,- 



LESSON VI. 

THE INFLUENCE OF THE MOON. 

For the precious things put forth by the Moon. — Deuteron- 
omy xxxiii. 14. 

THE HARVEST MOON. 

The moon affords us much more light in the 
early evenings of Autumn, than in those of any 
other season. For then, about the time of its 
full, it varies only about two hours in the time of 
its rising for six days together. It is then called 
the harvest moon, because it aids men in gather- 
ing their harvest. This circumstance attends the 
rising of the moon every month, when it is in or 
near Aries ; but it does not rise there when full, 
except in autumn. When there is the least dif- 
ference in the time of its rising there is the great- 
est difference in the time of its setting; and the 
reverse. 

In the long nights of winter the moon contin- 
ues much longer above the Horizon, near its full^ 
than at other times ; because it then passes near 
where the sun was in the summer. 

The goodness of God is thus very conspicuous* 



n 



TIDES. 2c 

4H that he furnishes us with the greatest portion 
of moonlight, when we need it the most. 

TIDES. 

As the Moon is only about two hundred 
and forty thousand miles from us, it attracts 
the earth with considerable force. Hence it 
rerders all material substances immediately un- 
der it lighter than they otherwise would be : 
F;>r it counteracts the tendency which they 
Jhave towards the earth's centre. But it produces 
710 sensible effect on solid substances ; nor on 
small collections of water, which have all their 
parts equally attracted by it at the same time. 
But on the wide ocean the effect is very percept- 
ible. For there the waters directly under the 
moon, having their weight diminished by it, are 
pressed upward by the surrounding heavier wa- 
ters ; just as a piece of wood is, if it be lighter 
than an equal bulk of the water in which it is im- 
mersed. Being thus elevated they roil on till 
they meet the shore, where they accumulate. 

But the Moon's attra-ction unites with that of 
*he Earth on the opposite side, so as to increase 
the weight of the waters there. Tho.se that are 
directly opposite to the Moon, being farthest 
from it, are lease attracted by it. Hence they 
likewise are forced upward by the surrounding 
heavier waters.* Thus the Moon produces two 

'" The reason generally assigned for the tide opposite to 
the Moon is, that the centre of the Earth, being more at- 
tracted than the opposite waters, is in a measure drawn 
from ihera. Or that these opx^ofite waters rise on ac- 



24 TIDES. 

tides at once, which follow it round the Earth 
When it is above us we have a tide, and when it 
is below us we have a tide. They recur once in 
about twelve and an half hours. For as the 
Moon continually moves toward the east, il is 
about twenty-five hours in passing from the me- 
ridian to the same meridian again. 

In the same way the Sun produces two tiles 
every day. But it is so far off that its tides ire 
very small. When the Moon changes, or is at 
its full, its tides unite with those of the Sun, aid 
become spring tides. At other times the Surfs 
tides diminish those of the Moon, and produc 
neap tides, when directly contrary to them ; as at 
the first and last quarters of the Moon. For thcr 
the Sun tends to produce low water, where the 
Moon tends to raise it. 

There are several causes, which separately 
fend to raise the tides higher than usual. When 
two or more of these unite the tides are propor- 
tionably increased. Thus if the Moon be in Per- 
igee, when full or new, the tides will be higher 
than at other times. For it then, being nearer 
to the Earth, attracts the waters with greater 
force. The spring tides are the greatest of all 
about the middle of March and the latter part o! 
September. For then the Sun and Moon, being 
both near the Equator, unitedly exert a more di- 
rect influence in raising the waters ; and the in* 

count of the centrifugal force they acquire by the revolu- 
tion of the Earth round a common centre with the Moon 
But it seems indisputable, that the effect is partly, at Least) 
produced by the cause stated above. 



THE WEATHER, 23 

iluence of the Sun on the waters is greatest, when 
It is on the south side of the Equator ; for it is 
then nearer to the Earth than it is when on the 
north side, 

THE MOON ? S INFLUENCE ON THE WEATHER, 

The same causes, which raise tides in the 
ocean, raise much higher and corresponding tides 
in the atmosphere. These have a great effect 
on the weather. The effect would be uniform, 
so as to produce periodically the same kind of 
weather, were not the atmosphere subject to 
changes arising from other causes. God has de- 
signedly left us in a state of uncertainty respect- 
ing this subject, that we may more sensibly feel 
our dependence on him. He causes it to rain on 
one city, and causes it not to rain on another 
city ; by the operation of laws which are hidden 
from us. But he affords us opportunity of form- 
ing probable conjectures concerning the future 
state of the weather. From the law, by which 
the tides rise and fall in the atmosphere, ma- 
ny valuable calculations of this kind may be 
made* For the weather usually changes at spring 
and neap tides. It either storms is cloudy or cold 
at that time. An equinoctial storm may always 
be expected, when the Moon is full or new, 
near the time of the equinoxes ; especially if it 
be at the same time in Perigee.. In some sea- 
sons the weather is foul at the change, full, and 
quarters of the Moon \ and fair during the in- 
terims. The weather has other changes, which 

3 



^6 THE MOON ? S PLACE. 

periodically return with the moon. By observe 
ing these periodical changes we may calculate 
what the weather will probably be for many fu- 
ture weeks. But still clouds zvithout rain will 
often disappoint our expectations, and storms 
will sometimes come without waiting for thu 
Moon. 

It is a common remark, that a thunder shower 
will not come up against the Moon ; that it will 
be either scattered, or Carried to the northeast, 
and arrive from that direction. If this be a fact 
it is doubtless occasioned by the commotion, 
which the tide produces in the upper regions. 
When the Moon runs high it will probably bring 
a cold breeze from the north. 

The Moon affects the sap of vegetables, and 
perhaps some regard may properly be had to it 
in gathering the fruits of the earth ; but no rea- 
son appears, why any regard should be had to it 
in sowing seed. 

THE MOON ? S PLACE. 

The notion, that the Moon affects different 
parts of the body according to its place in the 
heavens, seems to have originated from a harm- 
less contrivance of the ancient astronomers. 
They divided that part of the heavens through 
which the Moon passes round the Earth, into 
twelve equal parts called Signs. They were then 
led to adopt a device, by which they might rea- 
dily express and remember the relative situation 
of these signs. For this purpose they considered 



TtfE MOO^S PLACE- 

the human body, as divided into twelve parts ; 
each part answering to a particular Sign ; the 
head answering to the first Sign, where they 
imagined that they saw, in the location of the 
stars, some resemblance of a Ram's head. Hav- 
ing thus begun, they could easily complete the 
device, so as to imagine that everv Sign contain- 
ed some resemblance to a corresponding part of 
the body r Then it would be natural, and con- 
venient hi describing the Moon's place to say, 
that it was in the Head, Neck, and Arms, &c. 

This simple contrivance, in the dark ages of 
the world, prepared the way for a delusion, 
which has been perpetuated to the present day. 
Those, who publish Almanacks, encourage it for 
the sake of rendering their work sal?able. Hence 
they insert a column for the Moon's place, as if 
it governed successively different parts of the 
body. But let any person become acquainted 
with the principles of astronomy, and he will de- 
te I this imposition ; and look for the Moon's 
place in the heavens, instead of the Head, Neck, 
and Arms. He will see that, w r hen according to 
Modern Almanacks, the Moon governs the Head., 
it is actually in that part of the heavens, where 
the ancients supposed it governed tfre feet,* and 
that it will not again have the same relative po« 
sition there, under nineteen vears.f 

* See Lesson X. Precession of the Equinoxes. 

t See Glossary. Cvcle of the Moon. As the Moon's 
Kodes perform a revolution in nineteen years the Har= 
> est Moon continually varies. The difference in the time ©t 
itjj rising is greate.stwhen the Descending rsode is in Aries. 



,28 THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 

QUESTIONS. 

What circumstance attends the rising of the Moon nea* 
its full, in September a"nd October ? 

Why is it called the harvest Moon? 

When is there the greatest difference in the time of the 
.Moon's setting- 3 

Why is the Moon when full longer above the Horizon 
in winter than in summer ? 

What occasions tiie tide in the ocean immediately un- 
der the Moon ? 

What occasions a tide at the same time on the oppo- 
site side of the Earth ? 

What are spring tides ? Neap tides ? 

Why are the tides very high when the Moon changes 
pr is at the full in Perigee ? 

Why are they the highest of all, near the time of the 
equinoxes ? j^ 

Why can we not determine from tire tides in the at- 
mosphere what the weather will be . ? 

What changes usually recur in the weather at the 
change, full, and quarters of the Moon ? 

What occasions equinoctial storms ? 

What probably gave rise to the whimsical notion that 
the Moon successively governs different par^s of the 
body? 



LESSON VII. 

THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 

Through faith we understand that the Worlds were framed 
by the Word of God. — Hebrews xi. 3. 

The Solar System includes the Sun, seven 

where it will be in A. D. 1830 ; and the difference is least, 
and of course the Harvest Moon is the most beneficial, 
when the Ascending Node is in Aries, where it will be in 
A. D. 1839 The Moon runs unusually high and low once 
in nine years ; for when her Nodes are in the Equinoxes 
her greatest latitude is directly north and south of the 
Solstices. 



THE SOLAR SYSTEM, 



29 



Primary Planets, four Asteroids, eighteen Sec« 
ondary Planets or Moons, and more than a 
hundred Comets. The names of the Primary 
Planets are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, 
Jupiter, Saturn and Herschel. The names of 
the Asteroids are Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta, 
The Earth has one Moon, Jupite/- four, Saturn 
seven, and Herschel six. 

The Sun is in the centre of the System, and 
these other bodies revolve round it as they are 
represented in the following Figure. 




^Note,— The small circles round the Earth, Jupiter, Sa^' 
via and Herschel, represent the Orbits of their Moons. 

3* 



30 THE SOLAR SYSTE.M, 

Mercury, being the nearest to the Sun. moves 
round it in a small circle. 

Venus revolves in a larger circle, but within 
the Earth's Orbit. 

Mars goes round the Earth's Orbit. Next 
come at different distances, the 

Asteroids, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta. 
Then Jupiter, in a still larger Orbit, with four 
Moons, revolving round it. 

Beyond this is the Orbit of Saturn with its sev- 
en Moons. 

Herschel at a vast distance, with its six Moons, 
rolls slowly round the Orbits of all the other 
Planets. 

Occasionally a Comet darts through these 
Orbits, and seems to threaten destruction to the 
whole system. But directed by the hand of the 
Almighty, it flies round the Sun ; and harmlesslv 
retires again, for ages, into the unknown regions 
of space. 

All the Planets revolve bv the same law the 
Earth does ; and most, if not all of them rotate, 
so as to have day and night, as well as different 
seasons. 

The irregularity of the Comets arises from the 

fact that their projective force was at first dis- 

proportioned to their centripetal force. It was 

either too great, or too small, for the purpose of 

making them revolve in circles. Hence their 

centrifugal force, which is only a modification of 

the projectile force, is continually varying. 

Illustration. — You may form an idea of the law that 
governs the Comet by slinging a stone, which being- 



THE SOLAR SYSTEM, 31 

brought rapidly round your hand, passes off with great 
velocity. Or by giving a sudden jerk to the string, while 
whirling a ball, and then letting go. If, while the ball 
flies off, your hand attracted it, as the Sun does a Cornet, 
it would be gradually retarded, and at length brought 
back in a curved line, and violently thrown off again in 
its former course. 

The irregularity of the Comets is probably conducive 
to the order of the Solar System, which is exactly balan- 
ced by him, who framed the Worlds. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the Solar System ? 

What is the order, in which the Planets revolve round 
the Sun ? 

What occasions the eccentricity of the Comets? 

How would you illustrate the law, by which they ar<e 
governed? 



LESSOxN VIII. 

MAGNITUDES AND DISTANCES OF THE PLANETS. 

.There is one glory of the Sun, and another glory of th?. 
Moon, and another glory of the Stars. For one Star dif- 
fered from another Star in glory. — 1 Cor. xv. 41. 

By gradual discoveries astronomers have at 
length ascertained the diameters of the Planets, 
their distances from the Sun, the times in which 
they perform their revolutions, and their hourly 
motions in their orbits. These may be seen at 
one view in the following table, expressed in 
round numbers. You will observe that in this 



B2 



THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 



table the mean distance of every Planet is given. 
or that which is between its greatest and the 
least distance from the Sun. 



Names of 

the 
Planets. 


Diam- 
eter in 
miles. 


Distance 
from the 
Sun in mil- 
lions of 
miles . 


Length of tlie 
day, or rota- 
tio?i on its 
axis. 


Year, or 
yearly 
revolu- 
tion. 


Hourly 
motion in ' 
its Orbit. 

MILES. 


Mercury- 


'3,200 


37 


Unknown. 


3mo's. 


111,000 


Venus 


7,600 


68 


23 h. 20 m. 


7 mo's. 


81,000 


Earth 


7,900 


95 


24 h. 


12 mo's. 


68,000 


Mars 


4,200 


144 


24 h. 39m. 


23 mo's. 


56,000 


Ceres 


161 


266 




4y's. 




Pallas 


80 


266 




4 y's. 




Juno 


100 


255 




5 y's. 




Vesta 


238 


217 




4y's. 




Jupiter 


89,000 
79,000 
35,000 


492 


9 h . 55 rn . 


12 y's. 
29J y's. 
83£y's. 


30,000 
22,000 


Saturn 


902 


10 h 16 m; 


Herschel 


1,800 


Unknown. 


15,000 



This Figure represents the Planets in their true pro- 
portions. 




JHcrschcfj 



J&ratryfifo™ Varns Earth 

« ^ O O O 



Moon 




Note.— The Elipses round Saturn represents his Rings, 



THE SOJ.AR SYSTEM. 33 

By this table and Figure, it appears that Mer- 
cury is much smaller than the Earth, and much 
nearer to the Sun. It is seldom seen, and never 
far from the Sun. Venus is nearer to the Sun 
than the Earth is. Hence it is always either & 
morning or an evening Star. It appears larger 
than any other Star ; but it is not quite as large 
as the Earth. Mars is still smaller : it has a red 
fiery appearance ; but its apparent magnitude 
is continually varying. When on this side of 
its Orbit it is large and bright ; but at other times 
small and dim. The telescope shows that it has 
snow on its north and south ends, which melt* 
when its summer approaches. — The Asteroids 
are comparatively very small. They can hardly 
be distinguished by the naked eye. — Jupiter is 
one thousand four hundred times larger than the 
Earth. It appears almost as large and bright as 
Venus. Its four Moons cannot be seen without 
a telescope. By the eclipses of Jupiter's Moons 
it is ascertained that Light is sixteen and a half 
minutes in crossing the Earth's Orbit, and eight 
and a quarter minutes in coming to us from the 
Sun. — Saturn is one thousand times larger than 
the Earth. It appears bright and redish, but not 
as large as Jupiter. It is surrounded by two 
broad flat rings, lying in the same plane. The 
nearest is thirty-four thousand miles from the 
Planet, ami twenty thousand miles wide. The 
other is two thousand miles beyond the first, and 
seven thousand miles wide. But neither these nor 
its seven Moons can be seen by the naked eye.— 
Herschel is ninety times larger than the EartH. 



4 THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 



It can scarcely be seen, except by the telescope. 
It received its name from Dr. Herschel, who 
first discovered it. — All the Planets receive their 
light from the Sun, and shine by reflection. 

These huge bodies, which differ from one an- 
other so widely, with respect to their magni- 
tudes, distances and motion, roll on in perfect 
harmony according to the laws, which their Cre- 
ator first assigned to them. It appears from ob- 
servation and experiments, that the laws- of mo- 
tion are general and uniform. 

If a suitable number of balls were so made ? 
placed, and propelled, as to bear the same rela- 
tion to one another, in these respects, that those 
of the Solar System do ; they would, of their 
own accord, for ever revolve in the same order ; 
were they not prevented by the Earth's attrac- 
tion; or some other extraneous impediment. 

QUESTIONS. 

How far is the Earth from the Sun ? 

How much larger than the Earth is Jupiter ? Saturn i 
and Herschel ? 

What peculiarity has Saturn ? 

How long is a year in these Planets ? 

Why do the Planets shine ? 

Are the laws of motion general ? 

Why then cannot balls be placed, so as to revolve of 
iheir own accord as the Planets do ? Or why cannot a 
machine be made to go by perpetual motion? 



Concave of heaven* .S3 



LESSON IX, 

THE CONCAVE OF HEAVEN. 

li is he that sitteth upon the Circle of the Earth, and the 
inhabitants thereof are as grass-hoppers ; that stretchetk 
cut the heavens as a curtain, and spreadeth them out as a 
tent to dwell in. -^-Isaiah xl. 22. 

The Heavens appear like a great canopy 
spread over us ; or rather like a hollow globe, 
in the midst of which we are placed, viewing 
successively the concave surface, while we are 
rolled round by the daily revolution of the earth. 

In order to become acquainted with the hea- 
vens, we must consider them as divided into dif- 
ferent regions. The grand divisions of them, 
that are usually made, correspond with those of 
the Earth. 

The Equator is an imaginary circle, parsing 
round the Earth, dividing it into northern and 
southern hemispheres. 

The Ecliptic marks the place, over which the 
Sun seems to pass during the successive seasons 
of the year. It is the plane of the Earth's Orbit, 
This and the plane of the Equator are indefinite- 
ly extended ; so that the Equator and Ecliptic 
of the Earth, coincide with the Equator and 
Ecliptic of the heavens : and the Axis and Poles 
of the Earth are so extended, as to become the 
Axis and Poles of the heavens. The sensible 
Horizon is the circle, where the Heavens and 
Earth seem to meet 



3$ COJSSAVE OP HEAVEN. 

Every circle is divided into three hundred and 
sixty equal parts, called degrees ; every degree 
contains sixty minutes; every minute sixty sec- 
onds. 

Latitude is the distance north or south from 
the Equator. But the latitude of a heavenly 
body is reckoned from the Ecliptic. 

Longitude is the distance east or west from 
any point. But the Longitude of a heavenly 
body is the distance east from the point, where 
the Ecliptic cuts the Equator at Aries. (See 
Map of the Heavens.) 

QUESTIONS, 

How do the Heavens appear ? 
How are they considered as divided ? 
What is the Equator ? The Ecliptic ? 
What Axis and Poles have the Heavens? 
-" What is the Sensible Horizon? 
How is every Circle divided? 
What is Latitude f 

How is the Latitude of a Heavenly body reckoned I 
What is Longitude? 
How is the Longitude of a Heavenly body reckoned? 



CONSTELLATIONS 8? 

LESSON X. 

CONSTELLATIONS. 

Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or hose th$ 
bands of Orion f Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in 
his season 9* Or canst thou guide Jlrcturus with his 
sons ? — Job xxxviii. 31. 

The Fixed Stars do not change their relative 
situation like the Planets, but remain perpetually 
fixed in the same parts of the heavens. Those of 
them that appear in clusters, are called Constella- 
tions ; to which the ancients gave such names as 
were supposed to be descriptive of the spaces 
they occupy. All the bright stars and nearly all 
that are visible, are now included in the Con- 
stellations which are described in the next Les- 
son. 

Twelve of these Constellations lie on the 
Ecliptic. Each one of them extends through a 
twelth part of it, or thirty degrees. That por- 
tion of the heavens which includes them is called 
the Zodiack. TheZodiack likewise includes the 
Orbit of the Moon and of all the Planets. It is 
about sixteen degrees wide, or eight degrees on 
each side of the Ecliptic. 

* Mazzaroth is supposed to be the twelve Signs. Plei- 
ades, or the Seven Stars, are figuratively represented as 
maturing the fruits of the earth. This Constellation ap- 
peared in the summer evenings, when the book of Job was 
written. But on account of the Precession of the Equi- 
noxes, it does aat appear so early by nearly tw« saontfes. 



3 8 CONSTELLATIONS. 

The Sun formerly crossed the Equator m tl 
Spring of the year near the Ram, which w< 
reckoned as the first of these twelve Constelh 
tions ; but you see by the Map that the Sun no^ 
crosses the Equator thirty degrees west of thii 
It will continue to cross farther west fifty second 
of a degree every year. This alteration is calle< 
the Precession of the Equinoxes. This period i 
completed in twenty-five thousand nine hundrei 
and twenty years. Hence if the world continue 1 
twenty-three thousand seven hundred and sixty 
years longer, the Sun will again cross the Equa- 
tor south of the Ram, where it did two thousand 
one hundred and sixty years ago. The Preces- 
sion of the Equinoxes is caused by the accumu- 
lation of matter around the Equator, which the 
sun attracts, -when north or south of it, so as to 
bring the Equator under it twenty and one fourth 
minutes sooner than it otherwise would. 

The Sun apparently passes through all the 
Constellations of the Zodiack every year. The 
daily revolution makes it seem to go round the 
heavens once in twenty-four hours. This how- 
ever does not alter its position with respect to 
the stars ; for they seem to move round with it. 
But the yearly revolution of the earth makes the 
Sun seem to move slowly towards the east. Or 
what is the same thing, it makes the Fixed Stars 
seem to move slowly towards the west to meet 
the Sun ; so that they rise nearly four minutes 
earlier every night than they did the preceding 
night ; till they rise before sun down, at noon, 
ia the morning and pass by the Sun, rise before 



CONSTELLATIONS CLASSED AND DESCRIBED, 5f? 

it ; and perform the same revolution over again. 
Thus Arcturus and Orion make their appear- 
ance, move on towards the west, and are again 
lost in day light. 

Illustration. — Walk round a candle or some dis- 
tant object ; and } r ou will perceive that the direction in 
which you view it, as it respects other objects at rest, is 
continually changing-. Thus as you are carried round 
the Sun once a year, the direction in which vou view it 
continually varies, with respect to the Fixed Stars. 

QUESTIONS. 

What are the Constellations ? 

What do their names denote ? 

How many of them are on the Ecliptic ? 

What is that space called which includes these twelve 
Constellations ? 

Wljat is the name of that Constellation near which the 
sun formerly crossed the Equator in the Spring 1 

Why does it now cross farther west ? 

How much farther west will it cross every year ? 

What is this alteration called ? What causes it? 

How much does it shorten the year ? 

What makes the stars seem to move westwardly to- 
wards the Sun. 

How much do they advance in this direction every day ? 

How can you illustrate this ? 



LESSON XI. 

CONSTELLATIONS CLASSF.D AND DESCRIBED, 

Praise him all ye stars of light.— Psalm cxlviii. 3. 

A Catalogue of the Constellations arranged in 



40 CONSTELLATIONS CLASSED AND DESCRIBE 0. 

Classes. I. Those of the Zodiack. II. Those 
between the Zodiack and Lat. 48°. N. III. Those 
that never set as far north as Lat. 42°. IV. 
Those that are south of the Zodiack. V. Those 
that never rise as far north as Lat. 42°. 



L 

The Ram. 
The Bull. 
The Twins. 
The Crab. 
The Lion. 
The Virgin. 
The Scales. 
The Scorpion. 
The Archer. 
The Goat. 
The Water Bearer. 
The Fishes. 

II. 

The Flying Horse. 
Andromeda. 
Perseus. 
Medusa's Head. 
The Waggoner. 
The Lvnx. 
The Little Lion. 
Berenice's Hair. 
Bootes. 

The Grey Hound. 
The Harp. 
The Swan. 
The Lizard. 
The Eagle. 
Antinous- 



The Dolphin. 

The Arrow. 

The Fox and Goose. 

The Horse's Head. 

The Northern Crown.. 

The Serpent. 

The Serpent Bearer. 

Hercules. 

The Bull of Foniatowski. 

Sobieski's Shield. 



III. 

The Little Bear. 
The Great Bear. 
The Cameleopard. 
The Dragon. 
Cassiopeia's Chair. 
Cepheus. 

The Whale. 
The River Eridanus. 
The Phenix. 
Orion. 
The Hare. 
Noah's Dove 
The Great Dog. 
The Little Dog. 
The Unicorn. 
The Ship Argo. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. 41 

The Hydra. V. 

The Sextant. 

The Mariner's Compass. The Altar. 

The Air Pump. The Indian. 

The Crow. The Peacock. 

The Centaur. The Bird of Paradise. 

The Wolf. The Camelion. 

The Southern Crown. The Southern Triangle. 

The Southern Fish. The Flying Fish. 

The Microscope. The Sword Fish. 

The Sculptor's Shop, The American Goose 

The Air Pump. The Water Snake. 

The Crane. The Telescope. 

A few obscure Constellations are omitted in this Cata- 
logue. The whole number is eighty. Only forty-eight 
however were named by the ancients. The rest are what 
they considered as unformed stars. 

The most common Latin names are added in the follow- 
ing description of the Constellations. 

New stars sometimes appear while others disappear. 
Many stars which appear single to the naked eye are 
found to be double when viewed with a telescope. Some 
of them contain even three or four Stars. Dr. Herschel 
has discovered seven hundred of this description. 

A DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. 

r 

THE METHOD EXPLAINED. 

The dates show the time when the western 
parts of these Constellations come to the meridi- 
an, about 8 o'clock in the evening. The numer- 
ical figures which immediately follow their names 
denote the number of stars they contain accord- 
ing to Flamsted. He has however included sev- 
eral stars which cannot be seen without a teles- 
cope. The names in Italic letters stand for sin- 

4* 



42 DESCRIPTION OP THE CONSTELLATIONS, 

gle stars, or parts of Constellations. The figures 
placed after them show their magnitudes. Thus, 
1st, denotes that the star is of the largest kind. 
2d, denotes that it is of the next largest, &c. Bat 
stars which are usually considered as belonging 
to the same order differ very much in their size. 
Sirius is the largest. The Goat in Auriga the 
West Foot and East Shoulder of Orion, the 
BulPs Eye, Vega, Antares and Arcturus are 
larger than several others of the first magnitude. 
Stars of the sixth magnitude can scarcely be 
seen. 

I. CONSTELLATIONS OF THE ZODIACK. 

Dec. 21, 8 o'clock, P. M.— The Ram or Aries 
66. His head is about an hour and a half west 
of the seven stars. It has one bright star 2d, 
and a little to the south west are two others very 
near each other of the 3d and 4th. 

Jan. 12.— The Bull, or Taurus 140. Bull's 
Eye or Aldebaran, 1st. The Bull has the sevoi 
stars or Pleiades on his back, and Hyades in 
his face. The Hyades are five stars placed in 
the shape of V, or a harrow; at the end of which 
is the bright redish star, called the JBulVs Eye. 
Some distance east and north east of this are two 
stars for the BulPs Horns. The north Horn, 
2d, is the largest. Saturn is now near the south 
horn. 

Feb. 18.— The Twins or Gemini 85. Castor 
2d and Pollux 1st. These two bright stars are 
about two hours east of the Bull. They are near 



DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. 45 

each other. Pollux is a little to the southeast 
of Castor. They form the heads of the Twins. 
Their feet are four very small stars in a row at 
the southwest. Pollux is a double star. Saturn 
will be near the Twins about 1827. 

March 20. — The Crab or Cancer 83. It 
has two small stars with a blur between them 
resembling a comet ; about an hour east of the 
Twins. 

April 20. — The Lion or Leo 95. The Laonh 
Heart or Regulus 1st. At the northeast of this 
is the Lion's Tail 2d. The Lion is a cluster of 
bright stars. Jupiter is now near it at the east. 

May 23. — The Virgin or Virgo 110. Vir- 
gin's Spike or Spica 1st. The Virgin is east of 
the Lion. The Svica is southeast, a bright star 
standing alone. Mars however is now near it., 
and Jupiter will visit it in 1827. 

June 21. — The Scales or Libra 51. The 
Southern Scale 2d, is an hour east of Spica. 
The Northern Scale is the next bright star north- 
east. . 

July 20. — The Scorpion or Scorpio 44. An- 
tares 1st. The Scorpion is a remarkable cluster 
of bright stars east of the Scales. Its tail extends 
to the Horizon, and bends around towards the 
north, into the Milky Way ; and ends in two 
stars that are close together. 

Aug. 23. — The Archer or Sagittarius 69. 
This constellation has several stars of the 2d mag- 
nitude. It is close to the Milky Way, east of the 
Scorpion. 

Sept, 23. — The Goat or Capricorn 51. Its 



44 DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS, 

Head is a pair of stars 3d ? northeast of the Arch- 
er ; and its tail is a similar pair about an hour 
to the east of its head. 

Oct. 15. — The Water Bearer or Aquarius 
108. His west shoulder 3d ; is above the tail of 
the Goat. East of his east shoulder 3d, there is 
a peculiar arrangement of very small stars ex- 
tending toward the southeast; imagined to be wa- 
ter poured out by him. 

Nov. 22. — The Fishes or Pisces 113. The 
Fishes are two clusters of veiy small stars lying 
northeast and southwest of the first bright star 
west of the Ram. They are supposed to be 
joined together by the first bright star south of 
the Ram called the Fishes' knot 3d. For a row 
of small stars extends to this from each Fish. 

Note. — These Constellations do not arrive to the me- 
ridian at 8 o'clock, P. M. so soon by nearly a month as 
the Signs do to which they gave names. For these signs 
have moved 30 degrees to the west by the Precession of 
the Equinoxes. (See map of the heavens.) The Eclip- 
tic passes between the Pleiades and Hyades, the Horns of 
the Bull the Head and Feet of the Twins, through Regu- 
lus and the south scale of Libra, just above Spica, and 
Antares; and through the Head of Sagittarius. 

The ancients divided the stars of the Zodiack into the 
above named Constellations in the following manner. 
As one of these stars rose, they set a vessel to receive the 
water, which slowly dropped from another vessel. The 
water which was thus obtained by the time the same star 
rose the next night, they divided into twelve parts, a»d 
poured again into the upper vessel. Small vessels each 
fitted to contain one part were then successively set to re- 
ceive the dropping water. All the stars, which rose near 
the Ecliptic while a vessel was thus filling, were consid- 
ered as belonging to one constellation. — Ferguson. 



DESCRIPTION OP THE CONSTELLATIONS. 45 

tl. CONSTELLATIONS BETWEEN THE ZODIACK AND 

84° N, LATITUDE. 

Nov. 1. — The Flying Horse or Pegasus 89. 
Algcnib 2d, Marie ah 2d, 8 cheat 2d, Androme- 
da's Head 2d. These four stars form a great 
square. Algenib is two hours west of the Ram, 
and between the fishes. It forms a wing of the 
Horse. Markab is westwardly of this. Scheat 
is northward of Markab. Andromeda's Head is 
nearest to the North Pole. 

Nov. 22. — Andromeda 66. Her Foot is Al- 
maac 2d. Her Head is in the square of Pegasus. 
This constellation has three bright stars in a row 
with the breast of Perseus. 

Dec. 15,— The Triangle 16. It is halfway 
between the Ram and the foot of Andromeda, 
which is the third bright star in a row with her 
head. The Fly is east of the Triangle, three stars 
near one another. 

Dec. 20.— tPerseus 59. The brightest star 
2d nearly north of the seven stars is in the breast 
of Perseus on the Milky Way. His Head is to- 
wards the Pole. A little to the southwest of this 
is Algol in Medusa's Head. It is East of Andro- 
meda's Foot, and of the same size when full. 
This star has periodical variations in its size, 
supposed to be occasioned by its rotation on its 
axis like our sun. When it presents a side to- 
wards us which has dark spots on it, it appears 
small like a star of the 4th magnitude. It 
changes from the 2d to the 4th in 34 hours, and 
»ack again iu the same time, and retains its full 



46 DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. 

si«e only 2 days 14 hours. It passes over head 
Lat. 42°. 

Feb. 2. — The Waggoner or Auriga 66, The 
Goat 1st, north of the Bull's Horns. This very 
bright star passes a little to the north. Lat. 42° 
The Constellation contains several other bright 
stars. 

Feb. 28. — The Lynx £\. East of Auriga 
and north of Gemini. No bright stars. 

April 15. — The Little Lion or Leo Minor 
53, east of the Lynx and north of the Lion. No 
bright stars. 

May 24. — Berenice's Hair 43. A cluster of 
very small stars northeast of the Lion, in the 
shape of a triangle 

June 21. — Bootes or the Ox Driver 54. Arc- 
turns 1st, east of Berenice's Hair. This star is 
repeatedly mentioned in the Bible. 

May 24. — The Grey Hounds or Asterion 
and Chara 25. Charleys Heart 3d. West of 
Arcturus and north of Berenice's Hair. 

Sept. 1. — The Harp or Lyre 22. Vega 1st. 
North of the Archer. It rises in the northeast 
and passes directly over head Lat. 41° N. Viga 
viewed through a telescope appears to be double. 
One of the stars a brilliant white, the other dusky. 

Sept. 23. — The Swan 81. It is a great cross 
of stars on the Milky Way directly opposite to 
the Twins on the other side of the Pole and 
about the same distance from it, and east of Vega. 
This likewise passes overhead. 

Oct. 23. — The Lizard 16. It i* between the 
Swan and Andromeda. 



* 



DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS, 4/ 

! ; ept. 15. — The Eagle 71. Athair 1st. The 
Eagle is south of the Harp and Swan. Three 
stars in a row — the brightest in the middle. It 
is on the Milky Way. Antinous joins it at the 
south. 

Oct. 1. — The Dolphin 18. It has four small 
stars in the shape of a Rhombus or diamond. It 
is north east of the Eagle, and very near it. 

Sept. 15. — The Arrow 18. North of the 
Eagle. Three small stars in a row, and one near 
the end of it. 

Sept. 15. — The Fox and Goose 35. Between 
the Dolphin, Arrow and Swan. 

Oct. 10. — The Horse's Head, or Equauleus 
10. It is between the Dolphin and the Water 
Bearer. 

July 6. — The Northern Crown, or Corona 
Borealis 21. It is a cluster of bright stars di- 
rectly east of Arcturus in the form of an oval. 

July 15. — The Serpent 64. Its Head is inv 
mediately south of the Northern Crown. It is 
a crooked row of stars bending around toward the 
east into the Milky Way. 

July 23. — The Serpent Bearer, or Serpen- 
tarius 74. He lies north and south of the Ser- 
pent. His feet are on the Scorpion. His Head 
2d, a bright star west of the Eagle, near the end 
of a branch of the Milky Way, but more to the 
north. 

July 20. — Hercules 113. His Head 3d, a 
little to the north west of the Serpent Bearer's 
Head; his feet extending far toward the North 



48 DESCRIPTION OP THE CONSTELLATIONS 

Pole. The Solar System is said to be advancing 
toward a point in this Constellation. 

Aug. 15. — The Bull of Poniatowski 7. His 
head contains three or four stars, 5th in the end 
of a branch in the Milky Way, south east of the 
Serpent Bearer's Head. 

Aug. 23. — Sobiesxi's Shield. It is south- 
east of the Bull of Poniatowski, on the Milky 
Way. 

III. constellations which never set as far 

NORTH AS LAT. 42° BECAUSE THEY ARE WITH- 
IN THAT DISTANCE FROM THE POLE, WHICH IS 
ELEVATED 42°. 

June 21. — The Little Bear, or Ursa Mi- 
nor 24. The Pole Star 2d, is the last in its 
tail. It includes that pair of bright stars which 
are near the Polar star, and of the same size 
with it. 

March 20. — The Great Bear, or Ursa Ma- 
jor 87. This includes the Dipper 2d. Two 
of these stars always point to the Pole. Th* 
end of the Dipper farthest from the Pole is the 
Bear's Tail. His back is toward the Pole. — 
Three pairs of stars in a row form three of his 
feet. His nose 3d, is the same size with the two 
stars in his fore foot. There are no bright stars 
between these and the Twins. 

Jan. 15. — The Cameleopard 58. His Head 
6th is between the Pointers and the Pole. His 
tail is toward Perseus, and his feet toward Auri* 
ga. It is very obscure. 



•DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. 49 

July 20. — The Dragon 80. His Head is a 
square of four stars. The largest of these is 3d.* 
His tail is a crooked row of stars extending around 
the Little Bear, and ending between the Dipper 
and Pole at the Cameleopard's Head. 

Nov. 11. — Cassiopeia's Chair 55. Directlv 
opposite to the Great Bear on the other side of 
the Pole. It resembles a chair turned upside 
down. A new and dazzling star was seen in this 
constellation for sixteen months about two hun- 
dred years ago. 

Oct. 10.- — Cepheus 35. He is included be- 
tween the Pole, Cassiopeia and the Swan. His 
Head, 2d ? is toward the Swan. His name, and 
that of four adjoining Constellations were de- 
signed to perpetuate the memory of an ancient 
tradition. Medusa could by a look change a per- 
son into a stone. Her golden hair was turned 
into snakes. Perseus, armed with immortal pow- 
ers, cut off her head, and performed exploits with 
it. He also delivered Andromeda from a rock, 
to which she was bound to be devoured bv a 
monster for her mother Cassiopeia's pride,. He 
then married her. Cepheus, a king of Ethiopia, 
and one of the Argonauts was her father. 

IV. CONSTELLATIONS SOUTH OF THE ZODIACE. 

Nov. 22.— The Whale 97. Mcnhar 2d.— 
South of the Ram and Fishes. It includes the 

y By the variation of this star Dr. Bradley proved that 
the Earth has an annual revolution, and light a progres- 
sive motion. 

5 



50 DESCRIPTION OP THE CONSTELLATIONS. 

Fishes' knot. This constellation is very exten- 
sive. The bright star in the Whale's Head is oh 
a line with the seven stars and the Goat. Its 
Tail 2d, is south west on a line with its Head 
and the Bull's eye. 

Dec. 21. — The River Eridanus 84. East 
of the Whale. It is a crooked tract of small 
stars extending below the Horizon. 

Nov. 22. — The Phenix IS. On the Horizon 
south of the W hale. A bright star in his head is 
seen near the Horizon. 

Feb. 12. — Orion 78. Betelguese 1st. A great 
square of four bright stars south east of the seven 
stars and BulVs eye. The two highest stars in 
the square are his shoulders. The two lowest 
are his feet. His Belt is that remarkable row of 
three stars called by some the Yard and Ell 2d. 
The three smaller stars, which seem to hang from 
his Belt, are his Sword. His east shoulder is in 
a row with the Bull's horns. In his Sword there 
is a bright spot said to be larger than the whole 
Solar System. " It looks like a gap in the sky 
through which one may see a part of a much 
brighter region, where there seems to be perpetu- 
al and uninterrupted day among numberless 
worlds, which no human art can discover. — Fer- 
guson. 

Feb. 20. — The Hare 19. Immediately under 
the feet of Orion. Noah's Dove is under this. 

March 1. — The Great Dog, or Canis Ma- 
jor 31. It is after the Hare. It includes that 
great sparkling star called Sir his ] st. south oast 



DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. 51 

%f Orion. The time when the Sun is north of 
the Great Dog is called Dog Days. 

March 5. — The Little Dog 14. Procyon 
1st. This is the first bright star nearly north of 
Sirius. 

Feb. 25. — The Unicorn 31. It lies between 
the Great and Little Dogs. Its Head is close to 
the east shoulder of Orion. All its stars are 
small. 

March 20. — The Ship Argo 64. Bright stars 
2d, south east of the Great Dog, half of them are 
below the Horizon. 

March 20. — The Hydra 60. Its Head 3d, is 
south of the Crab, between Procyon and Regu- 
lus ; and its Heart 1st, is nearly south of Pegu- 
lus. It extends below Spica, to the Scorpion. 
The Mariner's Compass south of Hydra's Heart, 
and the Air Pump east of the Compass are small 
Constellations. 

April 20. — The Sextant 41. Small stars 
between the Heart of Hydra and Regulus. 

May 23. — The Crow 9. A square of four 
bright stars west of Spica, but more to the south. 
It is on the back of Hydra. The Cup is west of 
this. The Centaur south east of the Crow, and 
the Wolf east of the Centaur are on the Hori- 
zon and partly below it. The Southern Crown 
is under Sagittarius. 

Nov. 1. — The Southern Fisif 24. Forma- 
thaut 1st, a pale solitary star. It is west of the 
whale and south of Pegasus. A straight line from 
the Dolphin to this star passes between the shoul- 
ders and through the whole length of the Water 
Bearer. 



$2 DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. 

Sept. 20. — The Microscope 10, is half way 
between the Southern Fish and the Southern 
Crown. 

Oct. 10. — The Crane 13. South of Aquari- 
us, and partly below the Horizon. 

Note. — Most of these Constellations will be found on 
the Map. 

It is to be lamented that the Constellations have not re- 
ceived names more suited to their grandeur, and to excite 
devotional feeling's ; but you will remember that they were 
given mereJy to assist the memory, that they are in no 
sense descriptive ot the stars ; and but very imperfectly 
so of the spaces they oecup\ . and that all these stars of 
light shine expressly for the purpose of glorifying- their 
Creator. 

QUESTIONS. 

How many classes of Constellations are there? 

How are they distinguish*: 

"What do the dates prefixed to these Constellations 
denote ? 

What do the numerical figures placed after their names 
express? 

How are the names of single stars or of parts of the 
Constellations distinguished ? 

What do the numerical figures placed after these names 
in Italic show ? 

What name is given to the seven stars in the Bible ? 

Where arc they ? 

Why do not the Constellations of the Zodiack come fo 
the Meridian as soon as the Signs do to which they gave 
names ? 

What method did the Ancients take to divide the stars 
of the Zodiack into twelve Constellations, equal in extent? 

What is there remarkable in the appearance of Algol, 
the chief star in Medusa's Head ? Where is this star? 

What bright stars pass directly over head ? 

Where is ArcturtiS, a star repeatedly mentioned in the 
Bible ? 



DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTELLATION?, 53 

Why do the Constellations near the Pole never set 1 

Why do they seem to revolve round the Pole once in 
twenty-four hours ? Where is Orion ? 

What is there remarkable in Orion's Sword 1 

Where is Sirius ? 

What is the time called when the Sun is north of the 
Great Dog: ? 

Where will you look to see most of the Constellations 
represented ? 

If you draw a straight line from the Pole any way, to 
what point of the Compass will it extend ? 

Why does a star really north of another appear to be 
westward of it, when they are at the east of you ? 

How will the one nearest to the Pole appear, when 
they are at the westward of you ? 

In what way can you determine how the stars are real- 
ly situated, with respect to the points of the Compass '? 

For what great purpose do all the stars of light con- 
tinue to shine ? 

N. B. By the Map of the Heavens you will see why 
the stars seem to change their relative situations every 
night. They are all apparently whirled round the Pole. 
Hence a star really north of another appears west of it, 
when they are at the east, and east of it when they are at 
the west ; because they are on a Hue with the Polar Star 
A star that appears south of another when rising will ap- 
pear west of it near the Meridian, and north of it when at 
the west, because they are on opposite sides of a line 
drawn to the Polar Star. Thus Algol which is nearly 
south west of Perseus appears south east of it when they 
are at the east. To find what is the true relative situation 
of the stars you must consider that a straight line drawn 
in any direction from the Polar Star extends toward the 
south : and that the right hand of this line is east, and the 
left hand west : imagining yourself to be on the line with 
your face toward the Pole. 

5* 



54 MAP OF THE HJEAVENSr 

LESSON XII. 

THE MAP OF THE HEAVENS. 

The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that 
have pleasure therein. — Psalm cxi. 2. 

EXPLANATION OF THE CELESTIAL MAP. 

This Map represents in one view, all that part 
of the Heavens, that is seen near Lat. 42° N* 
The outer circle, being 48 J South of the Equa- 
tor, bounds your prospect at the south. The op- 
posite part of the smallest circle bounds yofir 
prospect at the north. Both of these circles are 
to be considered as continually revolving. The 
stars, which successively appear in the Horizon 
south, are laid down on the outer circle, and 
those, which successively appear in the Horizon 
north, are laid down on the smallest circle. The 
small broken lines, which meet at the Pole of the 
Ecliptic, pass between the twelve signs; as the\ 
are now reckoned. These signs received their 
names from the Constellations of the Zodiack, 
and formerly occupied the same spaces. But on 
account of the Precession of the Equinoxes, they 
are removed 30 degrees to the west ; so as to be- 
gin where the Ecliptic intercepts the Equator on 
the 20th of March. Hence the first sign, which 
is called Aries from the Ram, now includes the 
Fishes ; and the Ram is in Taurus, the 2d sign. 
Each one of these twelve Constellations is about 
30 degrees east of the sign which is named after 



MAP OF THE HEAVENS, 55 

it. These small lines meet 23i degrees from the 
north Pole, and the Ecliptic extends the same 
distance to the north and south of the Equator, 
because the Axis of the Earth is inclined toward 
the Plane of its Orbit ; as vou saw bv Illustra 
tion, Lesson IV. The six first signs are called 
the northern signs because they are north of the 
Equator, and the rest southern. 

The lanre lines which meet at the North Pole, 
rire Meridians, 30 degrees apart. Every two of 
them includes a space equal to that through which 
"ilie Sun seems daily to pass in two hours. Those 
at the right hand, are east ; and those at the left, 
west. The dates affixed to them denote the time 
when the parts of the heaveHs which they repre- 
sent, pass over the meridian of the place where 
you live at 8 o'clock in the evening. If it be 
earlier in the month than the time noted, or 
earlier in the evening than 8 o'clock, you must 
consider the line as a little to the east of vou. If 
it be later vou must consider it as a little to the 
west. For a line is to be considered as passing 
over head once in two hours, and arriving nearly 
four minutes sooner everv evening, than it did 
the preceding evening. 

The stars which are laid down on the circle of 
Latitude 42° N. will pass directly over head, if 
you live near that latitude. Two or three hun- 
dred miles north or south would occasion no ma- 
terial variation. Were you at that distance 
north, the stars would seem to be removed to the 
south ; and in the same proportion your view 
would fall short of the outer circle of the Map, 



56 MAP OF THE HEAVEHS. 

and be exteuded beyond the smallest circle. The 
reverse would take place if you should travel 
south. But no distance east, or west, would oc- 
casion the least variation. 

DIRECTIONS HOW TO USE THIS MAP. 

In order to use this Map it is not necessary to 
know precisely the time of the evening, nor the 
day of the month. But any time, the fore part 
of the evening, view the stars over head, and 
north and south, down to the Horizon. Then 
trace the line for the month through the North 
Pole to the opposite side of the smallest circle. 
On and near this line you will see the stars you 
viewed, represented ; the names that the an- 
cients gave them, and the figures which designate 
the spaces they occupy. The lines at your right 
hand pass at the same time through the points 
where the Sun seems to be at 10, 8, and 
6 o'clock in the forenoon ; and those at the left 
hand pass where the Sun seems to be at 2, 4, and 
6 o'clock, in the afternoon. From this circum- 
stance you can easily find the stars which you 
see at the east and west, and determine what 
part of the Map is to be considered as below the 
Horizon. After vou have found the names of 
two or three stars, vou can readily find the rest 
bv their relative situation. 



MAP OF THE HEAVENS, 5f 

DIRECTIONS FOR FINDING THE PLACES OF THE 
SUN, MOON, AND PLANETS BY THE MAP. 

By the Ephemeris, and the Calendar pages of 
an Almanack, you can find in what signs the Sun, 
Moon, and Superior Planets are ; and then tind 
where these Signs are hy the small broken lines 
on the Map. Or you may find their places by 
the following^ statements. 

The Sun is always about 120 decrees west at 
8 o'clock, P. M. ; or 4 Sirns west of the line, 
which passes overhead at that time. It passes 
through a Sign every month. 

The Moon passes through all the Signs every 
month, and one of them in about 24 days. It is 
in the same Sign with the Sun at its change. 

Mercury is never as much as one Sign from 
the Sun. 

Venus at its greatest Elongation is not more 
than 47 degrees and 48 minutes from the. Sun — 
little more than a Sign and a half. 

The Superior Planets move toward the East ; 
though they sometimes appear to be stationary, 
or retrograde. 

Mars passes through about six Signs a year. 
It is now, January 1st, 1826, in Libra. 

Jupiter passes through a Sign every year. It 
is now in Virgo, near the Lion. 

Saturn passes through a sign in about two 
years a half. It is now in Gemini, near tho 
south Horn of the Bull and west of it, but will 
soon pass to the east of it, and appear near the 
Twins for two or three vears. 



58 MAP OF THE HEAVENS. 

Herschel passes through a Sign in saves years', 
It is now in Capricorn, 

By remembering where these Planets are, and 
how fast they move toward the east, you may de- 
termine nearly, where they will be at any future 
time ; so as to be able to find them. The Plan- 
ets do not twinkle like the fixed stars ; but shine 
with a steady light, like the Moon. They are 
always in the Constellations of the Zodiack. 
When about three Signs before or after the Sun 
their motion so corresponds with tha* of the 
Earth as that they appear stationary. When 
passing from one station to another through their 
opposition to the Sun their motion is retrograde^ 
at other times it is direct or toward the east. 

QUESTIONS. 

What does this Map represent? 

Where are the Stars laid down, which appear in the 
Horizon south ? In the Horizon north ? which pass over- 
head ? Which never set? 

Where do the small broken lines pass, which meet at 
the Pole of the Ecliptic? 

How many Signs are there? From what did they receive 
their names 

Why do they not now occupy the same spaces with tha 
Constellations which gave them their names ? 

What are the large dated lines, which meet at the N. 
Pole > 

How would you find on the Map the stars which you 
§ee in the heavens ? 

How would you find the Sun's, Moon's and Planet*' pla- 
fiH by this Map ? 



THE DISTANCE OP THE FIXED STARS. 59 

LESSON XIII. 

THE DISTANCE OF THE FIXED STARS. 

Is not God in the height of heaven ! and behold the heiglU 
of the stars how high they are ! — Job. xxii. 12. 

The Solar System is separated by an immense 
space from all the surrounding stars. The dis- 
tance of the Sun and Planets can be easily mea- 
sured, and their magnitudes ascertained. But by 
no process can we determine the distance of 
even the nearest Fixed Stars. They seem dimin- 
ished when viewed through a telescope which 
magnifies a Planet two hundred times. Though 
Herschel's telescope which magnifies more thau 
six thousand times increases their blaze, it does 
not discover their disk, nor furnish any assist- 
ance for discovering their magnitudes or dis- 
tance. 

The diameter of the earth's Orbit bears no 
perceptible proportion to their distance. Hence, 
from a law of vision, it is certain that their dis- 
tance is at least a hundred thousand times the 
extent of that diameter. 

Illustration. — View an object at the south ; and as 
you walk towards the east it will seem to move towards 
the west, if it is not very remote. By observing how far 
it has removed, and how far you have walked, you can 
determine its distance by the rules of geometry. But if 
the direction, in which you view it, does not vary, you 
may be certain that it is vastly farther from you, thaa 
you have walked — a hundred thousand times farther, if 
•no variation can be discovered by an accurate instrument. 



60 THE DISTANCE OF THE FIXED STA31S. 

But Sirius at the south, supposed to be the 
nearest Fixed Star, maintains precisely the same 
relative situation, it did six months ago ; though 
since that time, we have moved to the east one 
hundred and ninety Millions of miles, or the 
whole diameter of the earth's Orbit. It is there- 
fore at least nineteen Billions of miles from us ; 
or a hundred thousand times one hundred and 
ninety Millions of miles. Lines drawn to it 
from the extremities of the Earth's Orbit would 
seem parallel, forming no angle. But if they 
did form a small ancle, sav two seconds of a de- 
gree, and a calculation were made accordingly , 
you would find it to be so far off, that a cannon 
ball, flying at the rate of four hundred and eighty 
miles an hour, would not reach it in four Mill- 
ions of years. It is still farther than this — how 
much farther none can tell. 

The Fixed Stars seem crowded together, espe- 
cially the small ones, which compose the Milky 
Way, and other cloudy spots in the heavens\ 
But each one of them is probably, as far from all 
the rest, as the nearest is from our Sun ; and is 
itself a centre to a system, like the Solar System 
— a sun to revolving planets. 

QUESTIONS. 

How much can tbe Sun and Planets be magnified by a 
telescope? 

How do the Fixed Stars appear, when viewed through 
such a telescope? 

How long- is the diameter of the earth's Orbit ? 

Does one hundred and ninety millions of miles beav 



THE NUMBER OF THE FIXED STARS. 6l 

any perceptible proportion to the distance of the Fixed 
Stars ? 

What then is the least distance, at which we can con- 
sider them ? 

How Ion g might a cannon ball fly at the rate of 480 
miles an hour, and not reach them ? 

What are they supposed to be 1 and how far from one- 
another? 

What causes that white tract called the Milky Way ? 



LESSON XIV. 

THE NUMBER OF FIXED STARS. 

He telleth the number of the stars ; he calleth them all by 
their names — Psalm cxlvii. 4. 

The number of stars, visible to the naked eye, 
is small when compared with that, which a tel- 
escope presents to view. Every improvement 
of the telescope has discovered stars, not seen 
before, and numerous cloudy spots which seem 
to be stars, too remote to be distinctly visible. 
Hence the created universe seems to have no 
limits. God alone can tell the number of the 
stars. There are no bounds to space, nor to his 
creating power, and no reason appears why he 
should have so restricted the number of them, as 
that they could be computed by a finite mind, 

The heavens seem to be filled with clusters of 
stars ; and every cluster, is supposed to be an 
immense system of Solar Systems. The follow- 
ing Figures show how they appear when viewed 
with a telescope. 

6 



62 THE NUMBER OF THE FIXED STARS. 



The following figure represents a compressed cLt5» 
ter of stars, the centre part 8' long 2' broad. 



N's/* w ,j,V- 






* 



The following figure represents another similar clus- 
ter of STARS. 



** 



■V-j. /• 



A- \'"*\, * + 




Note. — The diameter of the Sun's disk is 32' 15". 
Hence the Sun appears vastly larger than the spaces, 
which these clusters occupy. 



THE NUMBER OF THE FIXXD STARS. 63 

The following- figure represents a globular cluster 
2' in diameter, as seen with Mr. Herschel's 40 feet tel- 
escope. 

«*f&i&*t Should you, moving 

A^W^^M&VV^ like an unbodied spirit, 

^\^^^^S^^^ direct your course to the 

^^#^^IP^ nearest Fixed Star, it 

^Sv?^^^^^^^^/" would increase to your 

J^^§^^^^^^5^?+' view ? t] " y° u would see 

^^^%^P?^^&> planets rolling round it. 

\;t^##^M?^^ 0n approaching it, it 

^j^Sr^^&f* would become a resplen- 

^W*H dent universe. This 

world and all our Planets would disappear ; and 

the Sun itself become a mere point — a distant 

twinkling star. The same transition would take 

place, should you leave your new station for the 

next star ; that star would increase, become 

a sun to revolving worlds, while the one you last 

left would dwindle into a point. It is probable 

you might thus proceed with the rapidity of 

lightning, and at no assignable period reach the 

bounds of creation. 

We have seen that the bodies of the Solar Sys- 
tem are kept in their places by their centripe- 
tal and centrifugal forces. Every other system 
of worlds is probably balanced in the same way. 
13ut the systems themselves, if limited, must be 
drawn together by their mutual attraction ; un- 
less prevented by a projectile force, giving them 
a tendency t9 revolve round a common centre. 



64 THE INHABITANTS OF THE 

QUESTIONS. 

Who can count the number of the stars ? 

How is it probable that the stars would appear to you 
if you approached them? 

Could a created spirit ever reach the bounds of the 
universe ? 

What prevents ike systems of worlds from rushing to- 
gether ? 



LESSON XV. 

THE INHABITANTS OF THE WORLDS INNUMERABLE. 

Dominion and fear are with him; he maketh peace in 
his high places. Is there any number of his armies ? — 
Job xxv. 2. 

The Planets are evidently calculated and de- 
signed to accommodate rational beings. They 
are all like this Earth, and some of them vastly 
larger. They have day and night, summer and 
winter. Three of them at least have moons to 
attend them. Many circumstances constrain us 
to believe that they are filled with inhabitants ; 
and that svery Fixed Star illuminates worlds peo* 
pled with creatures like ourselves, but not in- 
volved with us in rebellion against the Creator— 
that there is peace in all his high places.* 

* Jehovah intimates that it would have been inconsist- 
ent for him to create the Earth, had he not designed it tt> 
be inhabited. He created it not in vain, he formed it to be 
inJiabited. Isaiah xlv. 18. As he shows us a number of 
other worlds, and gives us reason to believe that a far 
greater number are enlightened by the myriads of suns. 
presented to our view, must we not infer from his perfec- 
tions that be acted consistently in creating them, that he 
created them not in vain, but to be inhabited ? 



WORLDS INNUMERABLE, * 65 

He informs us that the morning stars sang to- 
gether , and all the sons of God shouted for joy, 
when he laid the foundations of this earth.* 
Hence intelligent creatures, and perhaps sys- 
tems of worlds, previously existed. The de- 
claration seems to intimate that the holy inhab- 
itants of these early created worlds, as well as 
the innumerable company of angels rejoiced to 
see the new displays of power, wisdom, and 
goodness, their creator made in bringing this 
world into existence. At least, there is reason 
to think, that such inhabitants are included in 
his numberless armies among the principalities 
and powers in heavenly places. 

The descendants of Adam are numerous be- 
yond our conception. But they probably bear 
no greater proportion in this respect, to the other 
subjects of God's moral government, than a drop 
does to the ocean, or the smallest particle of 
dust to the whole earth. Were the Solar Sys- 
tem with all its inhabitants struck out of exist- 
ence, the loss would be comparatively no greater,, 
than that of a single leaf in a boundless forest. 

Every intelligent creature separately consid- 
ered, is inconceivably valuable, in that he pos- 
sesses immortal powers, and must exist in end- 
lessly increasing bliss or woe, according to the 
character he forms while on trial. How im- 
mensely valuable then is the aggregate of the 
intelligent creation ! But all are vanity when 
contrasted with the Creator. His powers, glory 
and happiness transcend theirs, as infinite space 

* Job xxxviii. 7. 
6* 



S6 7 Hi CONDESCENSION OF COD. 

doe? a single point. The Lord is high above 
nil nations^ and his glory above the Heavens: — 
Who humble th himself to behold the things that 
are in the heaven and in the earth* All nations 
before him arc as nothing : and they are counted 
to him less than nothing, and vanity.i Yea. the 
heavens arc not clean in his sight. He put no 
trust in his servants, and his angels are charged 
trith folly. \ 

QUESTION - 

What reason is there to believe thai the Flanets are h> 
habited? 

What evidence have we that intelligent creatures ex- 
isted before men? 

In what respect is everv human being immensely- ralu- 
able " 

How do the human race compare with the rest of the 
intelligent creation ? 

How are all creatures esteemed in comparison with 
God 1 

What passages in the Bible represent him as inilnii 
exalted above creatures ? 



LESSON XVI. 

THE COMPCS ION OF GOD. 

:n J consider thy heavens, the vork of ihy fn^ers. the 
moon and the chick ihvu hast ordained : what is 

man that thou art mindful cf fun., and the son of man (A • 
a visitest hum — Psalm viii. 3. 

The human race, though mean and worth! 
in comparison with the r si of the universe, are 
not unnoticed by their Creator. With all trie 

P*alm cxiri. f Isaiah x!. 17 | Job xv. 15. and iv. 1$. 






THE CONDESCENSION OP GOD. 67 

complicated and endlessly protracted concerns of 
creation devolving on him, he regards us indi- 
vidually as much, and is as attentive to our wants, 
c< he would he. if he had no other charge. Hast 
thou not known, hast thou not heard that the tv+ 
erlasting God. the Lord, the Creator of the ends 
of the earth faint eth not. neither is weary ? thert 
is no searching of his understanding. — He fc 
good to all and his tender mercies are over all his 
works* 

But we have transgressed his holv law. on the 
honour of which the happiness of the universe 
depends. His benevolence therefore would have 
required that we should perish unless an ade- 
quate lemedy were provided. For he could not 
otherwise pardon and save the guilty consistently 
with general justice. In this season of awful 
^u^pense his voice of mercy was hepa'd — Live 
— 1 have found a Ransom. For God so 
Jnred id that he gate his only begotten 

Son, that whosoever believeth in him shout" 1 not 
>. but verlastii fe. — Without con* 

reat is t ^liness : Gcd 

': in ihencsh. He who created and 
upholds all tli ig by xhe word of his power — 
who b (he form of Go- * ought it not 

robbi ry to be f 1 God, took on him the 

form of a servant : and was wade in t 7 u likeness 
of r and passing by millions of other worlds, 

that needed no Saviour, he descended to this 

■ Isaiah xl. 28. Psalin cxlv. 9. 
1 Jaha iii. 16, ITim.iii. 16. Hebrews i. 2, 3. Phil. ii. 6. 



OS TKE CONDESCENSION OF GOD. 

globe, suffered, and died, to save the rebellious 
inhabitants, who deserved to die. Thus he se- 
lected this small obscure part of his dominions as 
a theatre for displaying his perfections in the 
greatest of all his works — the work of redeeming 
love — a work which in its result will outshine 
that of creation itself; and resplendently mani- 
fest his glory through the universe — To the in- 
tent that now unto the principalities and powers 
in heavenly places might be known by the church 
the manifold wisdom of God.* 

" The first archangel never saw 
" So much of God before." 

The Moon and Stars — the whole material and 
intellectual Creation is the effect of divine good- 
ness. The Lord hath made all things for him- 
self For his pleasure they are, and were ere- 

ated ;t for the gratification of his infinite benev- 
olence. He is full of compassion, ready to par- 
don, and save all who comply with his requisi- 
tions. But his word and Providence declare, 
that he will never relinquish his claims as the 
Moral Governor of the souls he has made ; nor 
bend his mighty movements to meet our puny 
plans. The worlds revolve, and the wheels of his 
Providence roll on, as the highest good of the 
universe requires ; and those who walk contrary 
to him must be crushed. If millions of men thus 
perish, the loss is as nothing, when contrasted 
with the interest of his vast and eternal empire ; 
and desirable, considered as essential to that in- 

* Eph. iii. 10. t Prov. xvi. 4. Rev, iv 11. 



I 

THE CONDESCENSION OF GOD. C9 

terest. But yield your powers to his command, 
and you may then humbly call him your God, 
and View the heavenly bodies, as they roll, and 
say they are yours, since they belong to your 
" Father and your Friend ;" and realize that he, 
who arranged them in such perfect order, and 
fixed the laws by which they are governed, has 
pledged his veracity for your eternal protection 
and support. 

" The voice that rolls the stars along-, 
Speaks all the promises." 

The visible creation loses all its splendour, 
when compared with the glories of the third 
heavens. It was brought into existence for a 
temporary purpose, and will cease when that 
purpose is answered ; as the scaffold is removed 
when the building is finished. The Sun will 
shine, and the planets revolve, till the work of re- 
demption is completed. Then the heavens shall 
pass away with a great noise, and the elements 
shall melt with fervent heat ; the earth also, and 
the ivories that are therein, shall be burnt up. 
Nevertheless we, according to his promise, look 
for new heavens and a new earth, wherein dwell" 
eth righteousness * 

QUESTIONS. 

Does God regard us amidst the immensity of his works ? 
In what way has he manifested peculiar regard for the 
human race ? 

*2 Peter iii. 10. 13. 



TO THE CONDESCENSION OF GOB. 

Will other worlds be benefitted by his displays of grace 
on earth ? 

For what did God create all things ? 

Is it desirable that he should favor the guilty at the ex- 
pense of the general good ? 

In what way can we secure his endless favor and pro- 
tection 1 

What evidence have we that the visible heavens are 
doomed to destruction ? 

What is promised to the righteous in view of this awful 
catastrophe ? 

Repeat the passage of Scripture with which each Les- 
son begins. 



GLOSSARY, 

OR 

EXPLANATION OF IMPORTANT TEJIMS 

RELATING TO 

ASTRONOMY. 



Altitude, the height of a heavenly body above the Hoii- 
ton. reckoned on a vertical circle. 

Amplitude, the distance of a heavenly body, when rising 
or setting, from the east or west point in the Horizon. 

jingle, the inclination of two lines meeting in a point, 
If one ime be perpendicular to the other ; the angle is 90^ 
or a right angle. 

Anomaly, a planet's distance from its aphelion. 

Aphelion, that point in the orbit of a heavenly body 
which is farthest from the Sun. The Earth is in Aphel= 
ion in July, for it is then at its greatest distance frcm the 
Sun. At the same time the'Sun is in Apogee. The Earth-' s 
Aphelion moves at the rate oi l c 43 35 '. in a hundred 
years. This is called its secular motion* 

Apogee, the Sun's or Moon's greatest distance from the 
Earth. The Moon's Apogee moves round her whole Or- 
bit in about nine years. It is n»w in Aries. But in 1827 
it will be in Gemini. 

Area, the surface contained between any boundaries or 
lines. The Planets describe equal Areas in equal times. 
That is, straight lines, eonsi i^red ui drawn f: >c tnem to 
the Son, and coring as they move, pass over just as much 
sp*te one day as another. Heuce th° nearc they are te 
the Sun, the faster they move ; and the reverse. 



72 GLOSSARY. 

Astronomy, a science that relates to heavenly bodies, 

Attraction of Gravitation, the tendency which bodies 
have to approach one another without any apparent 
cause. 

Axis, the imaginary line about which a globe or circle 
rolls. 

Bissextile, (twice six) leap year, when a day is added 
to February, but when the Romans used to reckon the 
sixth day of the Calends of March twice over. 

Central Forces, the composition of two forces, by which 
a body moves in a circle or curve. One force tending to 
draw it toward the centre, and the other to throw it for- 
ward, it can only move in a middle course between them, 
so as to describe a circle or curve. 

Centrifugal Force, the force by which a revolving body 
tends to move forward in a straight line away from the 
centre. 

Centripetal Force, the force which draws a revolving 
body toward the centre. 

Conjunction. Two heavenly bodies are in conjunction 
when they are in the same longitude, or when they appear 
in the same direction. 

Copernican System, the present. system of Astronomy. 
It was taught by Pythagoras five hundred years before 
Christ, and revived in the sixteenth century by Coperni- 
cus. 

Cycle of the Moon, or the Golden Number, is a revolu- 
tion of nineteen years, when the Moon returns again to 
its same relative situation with respect to the Sun and 
signs. Its conjunctions, oppositions, and other aspects 
are within an hour and a half of being the same as they 
were on the same days of the month nineteen years be- 
fore. The reason of this revolution is that the Sun attracts 
the Moon, when she is north or south of the Ecliptic, and 
causes her to return to it again sooner than she otherwise 
would. 

Cycle of the Sun, a period of twenty -eight years, when 
the days of the month return to the same days of the week, 
and the Sun's place to the same degrees of the Ecliptic 
on the sstfue months and days: 



GLOSSARY. 73 

Day, (sidereal,) 23 h. 56 m. 6 sec. or one rotation of 
the Earth. 

Day, (solar,) the time from noon to noon. 

Day, (civil,) from midnight to midnight.* A day in the 
history of creation means light considered as divided into 
evening and morning. Or the time in which light from 
its eastern to its western extremity performed one revolu- 
tion round the earth. " God called the light day." And 
the evening and the morning were the first day. 

Declination, the distance of a heavenly body from the 
Equator. When the Sun declines 23° 28 / from the Equa- 
tor, it meets a Tropic, and returns. - 

Degree, the three hundred and sixtieth part of a circle 
Hence a degree is great or small according to the circle. 
A degree of a great circle of the Earth is sixty-nine miles. 
iBut a degree of longitude in latitude 42° is about fifty -one 
miles. For circles around the Earth parallel to the 
Equator, grow less and less toward the north and south 
Poles. Fifteen degrees in the heavens is about as far as 
the sun seems to move in an hour. For it is the twenty- 
fourth part of three hundred and sixty. 

Diameter, a straight line extending through the middle 
of a circular figure or globe. 

Digit, the twelfth part of the Sun's or Moon's diameter. 
The term is also applied to that part of the Earth's shad- 
ow, by which the Moon is eclipsed. If this be wider than 
the Moon the eclipse is more than twelve digits. 

Disk, the face or apparent surface of a heavenly body< 

Dominical Letter, one of the seven first letters of the al- 
phabet, used for the purpose of showing on what day of 
the month the first Sabbath of the year falls. 
K Eccentricity, the distance between the real centre of an 
Ellipse and either of its Foci. 

Ecliptic, a circle around the heavens in which the Sun 
seems to pass every year. It is called by this name be- 
cause the Moon is always in or near the plane of it, at the 
time of an eclipse of the Sun or Moon. 

Ellipse, is an oval figure or a circle so prolonged as to 
have two centres or foci. The Orbit of every Planet is 
an Ellipse having the Sun in one of its foci. Hence the 

* A civil day is reckoned differently by different nations. 

7 



74 GLOSSARY. 

Planets are once in Perihelion and once in Aphelion dur- 
ing every revolution round the Sun. Their distance from 
the Sun, which is between these two extremes, is called 
their mean distance. Thus the mean distance of the Earth 
is ninety-five million of miles, because it is at that distance 
when halfway between its Aphelion and Perihelion. 

Elongation, the apparent distance of a Planet from the 
Sun. 

Epact, the Moon's age at the end of the year; or the 
difference between the Lunar and Tropical year. 

Epkemeris, an account of the daily motions of the Plan- 
ets, with respect to the Signs. 

Equinoxes, the beginning- of Aries and Libra, where the 
Sun crosses the Equator. 

Galaxy, the Milky Way, a white track in the heavens, 
occasioned by myriads of Stars too small to be distinctly 
seen. 

Hemisphere, half a sphere or globe. 

Latitude, the distance north or south of the Equator. 

Latitude, (celestial,) the distance north or south from the 
Ecliptic. Hence a heavenly body north of the Equator 
is in south latitude, if it be on the south side of the Eclip- 
tic. 

Longitude, the distance east or west. Fifteen degrees 
of Longitude make an hour's difference in time. Thus, 
when it is noon here, it is one o'clock fifteen degrees east, 
and eleven o'clock fifteen degrees west, he. 

Longitude, (celestial,) the distance east from the first of 
Aries reckoned on the Ecliptic. Hence the last degree of 
Pisces is the three hundred and sixtieth degree east Lon- 
gitude. 

Horizon, (rational,) a circle which divides the Earth and 
Heavens into upper and lower hemispheres. 

Horizon, (senseable,) the circle where the Heavens and 
Earth appear to meet. 

Mean distance, time or motion, is that which is between 
the two extremes. 

Meridian, a straight line passing from the north to the 
south pole. The Meridian of any particular place passes 
through the Zenith of that place. Thus the Sun is on our 
Meridian at noon. A Star is likewise on our Meridian, 



GLOSSARY. / 5 

though north of us, if it be directly between us and the 
pole. 

Month, (Lunar,) 27 days, 7 h. 43 ra. the time in which 
the Moon passes from a point in her Orbit to the same 
point again. 

Month, or Lunation, 29 days, 12 h. 44 m. 3 seconds, or 
the time from one new moon to another. 

Month, (Calendar,) 

Thirty days hath September, 
April, June and November. 
February has twenty-eight alone, 
All the rest have thirty-one. 

Motion, (secular) is the progression which the Aphelion 
and Perihelion make in a hundred years. These points 
in the Earth's Orbit move in that time 1° 43' 35 ;/ . Hence 
they will perform a revolution round the Ecliptic in 20,700 
years if the world should continue ; and when half of that 
time is elapsed, the Sun will be in Perigee the first of 
July. 

Nadir, the point under foot directly opposite to the Ze- 
nith. 

Nebulce, clusters of exceedingly small stars. Dr. Her- 
schel with his mighty telescope has discovered more than 
two thousand of them. Each of these spots is probably 
as large as the Milky Way, which he supposes includes 
the Sun and all the Stars of the first, second and third 
magnitude. 

Nodes, the two points in which the Orbit of the Moon 
or a Planet crosses the plane of the Ecliptic. The Moon 
is never more than five and a half degrees from the Eciip- 
tic. Hence it runs high and low every month. 

Nutation of the Poles. The Earth's Axis changes its 
inclination to the plane of the Ecliptic twice a year. 
Hence its Poles nod, or have a nutation. This is caused 
by the accumulation of matter about the Equator, which 
the Sun attracts when north and south of it. [See Les- 
son X.] 

Opposition. When a heavenly body is 180° from the 
Sun, it is in opposition to it. 

Parallax, the difference between the apparent direc- 



76 GLOSSARY. 

tions of a heavenly body as seen from different sta- 
tions. 

Penumbra. The dark part of the Earth's Shadow is 
called its Umbra, and the light part its Penumbra. 

Perigee, that point in which a heavenly body is nearest 
to the Earth. The Perigee of the Moon or a Planet is al- 
ways six signs from its Apogee. 

Perihelion, the point in the Orbit of a heavenly body 
which is nearest to the Sun. The Earth is in its Perihel- 
ion in January. At the same time the Sun is in its Peri- 
gee. Most of the Sun's rays, which reach the Earth in 
the winter, fall to the south of us, and the rest strike us ob- 
liquely. Hence it is colder than in the Summer, though 
the Sun is nearer to the Earth. 

Periodical Time, is the time in which a planet performs 
its revolution round the Sun. The squares of the Period- 
ical times of the Planets are as the cubes of their mean 
distances from the Sun. Prom this law the relative dis- 
tances of the Planets have long been known. Hence it 
was only necessary to find the distance of one of them in 
order to find the distance of the rest. By the transit of 
Venus over the Sun in A. D. 1761 and 1769, the distance 
of that Planet was ascertained. From that the distances 
of the other Planets have been accurately calculated. 

Plane. The Plane of a circle or an ellipse is its imagi- 
nary surface. The Plane of the ecliptic or the Earth's 
Orbit is considered as indefinitely extended. It not only 
passes from the Sun through the Earth, but it extends to 
the fixed Stars. Bodies directly over or under the Earth's 
Orbit are in its plane, however distant. 

Poles, the extremities of the Axis. The Poles of the 
Ecliptic are 23° 28 ; from those of the Equator or the 
Earth ; for the Axis of the Earth is inclined toward the 
Plane of the Ecliptic. This inclination is diminishing at 
the rate of fifty seconds of a degree in a hundred years. 

Refraction. Rays of light are refracted, or bent out of 
their course, when they enter obliquely from a rarer into 
a denser medium. This is the reason that heavenly bodies 
near the horizon appear higher than they are in reality. 

Retrograde, the motion which planets sometimes ap- 
pear to have toward the west contrarv to the order of the 



OLOSSAIIY. 77 

Sgus, and contrary to the course in which they really 
move. This appearance is occasioned by the revolution 
of the Earth. 

Revolution. A body is said to revolve or perform a re- 
volution when it moves once round its Orbit. The rota- 
tion of the Earth is sometimes called its daily revolution. 

Right Ascension of a heavenly body is the distance of its 
meridian from the first of Aries. 

Roman Indiciion, a period of fifteen years, adopted by 
the Romans for civil purposes. This number multiplied 
by that of the Solar and Lunar Cycles makes seven thou- 
sand nine hundred and eighty years, or the Julian Peri- 
od. This period is considered as having- commenced sev- 
en hundred and nine years before creation. 

Rotation, the rolling of a globe on its axis. 

Sign, the twelfth part of the Zodiack. 

Sisygies, those points in the Moon's Orbit where she is 
when new and full. 

Solstices, two points in the Ecliptic at its greatest distan- 
ces from the Equator. One is in Cancer, where the Sun 
is the 21st of June ; the other is in Capricorn, where the 
Sun is the 22d of December. Two circles passing through 
these points, parallel to the Equator, and 23° 28' from it, 
are called Tropics. Their planes include the Torrid 
Zone. 

Shooting Stars. They are generally supposed to be ig- 
nited exhalations. But the Lon. Mon. Mag. (See Conn. 
Obs. Sept. 6) represents them to be globes, revolving round 
the Earth in elliptical Orbits, like Comets round the Sun ; 
and that when they enter the atmosphere they shine, be- 
cause they are heated by resistance and friction. It is 
certain that the Earth has such balls revolving round it ; 
and that they, from some cause, become heated, and 
throw off large stones by explosion. A stone, which fell 
from one of them a few years ago, is to be seen at Yale 
College. 

Year, (Lunar,) 12 Lunations, or 354 days, 8 h. 48 m. 
36s. 

Year, (Periodical,) 365 days, 6 h. 9 m. 14J s. the timje 
i« which the earth completes a revolution in its oi\it> 



78 GLOSSARY. 

Year, (Tropical,) 365 days. 5 h. 49 m. the time in which 
the Sun passes from a Tropic to the same Tropic again. 
This is the true year. It is about 20_i minutes less than 
the Earth's periodical time, because the Sun after leaving 
an Equinox or Tropic returns to it again, while the earth 
has not got round its Orbit by 50 seconds of a degree. 
This causes the Precession of the Equinoxes. (See Les- 
son X.) 

Year, (Julian or Civil,) 365 days, 6 h. The year thus 
fixed by Julius Cresar is 11 minutes too long. Hence in 
the course of ages the days of the month varied with re- 
spect to the Equinoxes and Tropics. To correct this vari- 
ation, and prevent it for the future, the New Style was 
introduced, and arrangement made for omitting the Bis- 
sextile day at the commencement of three centuries out of 
four. 

Zenith, the point over head. 

On the Map of the heavens, your Zenith is the same as 
your Latitude. Around this point, as a centre, place a 
ring made of pasteboard or paper, equal to 'he Equator, 
and it will represent your Horizon. Turn the Map round 
to the left under the ring, as on a pivot at the N. Pole, and 
you will see how the heavens come successively to view 
every day. While the heavens turn round, as thus repre- 
sented, your Zenith, considered as fixed in the centre of 
the Horizon, makes an imaginary circle round the Pole, 
like that on the Map at Latitude 42°. Let the Zenith be 
at the Equator, and the ring will extend beyond this Map. 
For there the north and south Poles, are botli in the Hor- 
izon; and all the heavens rise and set every day. The 
farther your Zenith is north of the Equator, the more stars 
at the south will be always below your Horizon ; and the 
more at the north, will be always above it. This you can 
illustrate by placing the ring so that different degrees of 
latitude, may be successively in its centre. If the north 
Pole be its Zenith, it will coincide with the Equator; and 
all the included stars will revolve and never set. By thus 
placing the ring round the Pole, you will see why the sun 
never sets there, when it is in the northern signs; and 
why it never rises there, when in the southern signs. Let 
a meredian of the Map be the diameter of the ring, and 



CORRECTION. 7 { J 

your latitude it? centre, and von will see what stars are 
rising and setting" at the time denoted by the date. Turn 
the Map, to the right, four signs, and you will see where 
the sun is at that time, and what part of the heavens was in 
your Horizon, eight hours before, or at noon. 

Zodiack. a space round the heavens, extending- 8° each 
side of the Ecliptic. This space includes the Signs, and 
the Orbits of ail the Planets. 

CORRECTION. 

Omit the last sentence in 2Sth page, and read, thus:— 
" The Moon in its monthly course runs high, when in Can 
cer, and low when in Capricorn. It runs unusually high 
and low when its Jfaecndihg Node is in Aries ; for Chen its 

greatest latitude is north of the summer solstice, and 
south of the winter solstice. But nine years afterward, 
when its Descending Node comes round to Aries, it does 
not run so high and low by ten degrees. Thus it is con- 
tinually vary big toward the north or south with respect to 
the same signs. 

There is a point between the Moon and Earth, at which 
their attractive influence is equal. Round this point, as 
a common centre, they both revolve every month. T<* 
illustrate this, run one end of a rod into a great apple, 
and the other end into a small one: and then make it tun- 
round on a pivot, placed under it at the point where they 
exactly balance each other. 

For several hours before the full, change, or quarters 
of the Moon, clouds usually collector appear in commo- 
tion, and a storm frequently follows; especially when 
these alterations in the Moon occur between 2 o'clock A. 
M. and 2 o'clock P. M. Hence there may be a sucees 
sion of stormy Sabbaths in the months of May and Octo- 
ber this year, and once within four or five months evei} 
year. A lunar Equinoctial storm often occurs, when the 
Moon crosses the Equator, or enters Aries or Libra. 

Pas-e 45 18° for 84 c . 

Page 46 — Vega for Viga. 

Page 47 — Equuleus for Equauleus. 

Page 57 — last paragraph, and before a half. 

Pasre 50 — for Feb. 12 and 20. read Feb. 1 and 2 



CONTENTS. 



WESSONS. PAGE- 

I. The Earth, its shape, Attraction of gravita- 
tion ------- 9 

II. Day and Night, how produced. The daily 

revolution 11 

III. The Sun, the yearly revolution 12 

IV. The Seasons of the Year, Equation of Time 15 
V. The Moon, and Eclipses - - - 18 

VI. The Harvest Moon — Tides — The influence of 
the Moon on the Weather — The Origin of 
the Superstition respecting the Moon's 

Place 22 

VII. The Solar System — Planets and Comets 28 

VIII. A Table of the Planets, their magnitudes and 

distances -------31 

IX. The Concave of Heaven — Definitions - -35 
X. Constellations — Their apparent annual Revo- 
lution — Precession of the Equinoxes - 37 

XI. Constellations classed and described — Their 

names and number of Stars — Times when 
they arrive to the Meridian eight o'clock in 
the evening ----- . 39 

XII. The Map of the Heavens explained — The 

Signs of the Zodiack — Their Names — The 






82 CONTENTS. 

LESSONS. PAGE. 

reason why they are removed to the West 
— The Way to find the Constellations by 
the Map — and the Way to find the Places 
of the Sun, Moon and Planets - - 54 

XIII. Fixed Stars — Their Distance — Why not as- 
certained ----- 59. 

XIV. Fixed Stars — Their Number not to be com- 
puted - - - - - 61 

XV. The Planetary Worlds inhabited - - 64 

XVI. The Divine Condescension - - - 66 

Glossary, or explanation of important terms rela- 
ting to Astronomy • «• - - - 71 



RECOMMENDA TIONS. 



Having heard read a part of a manuscript, containing 
a brief and familiar view of some of the elements of As- 
tronomy, by the Rev. Amos Pettengill ; I think that the 
statements and illustrations are substantially correct, and 
fitted to give valuable information to those who have not 
time or opportunitv to read more extended treatises of As- 
tronomy. JEREMIAH DAY, 

President of Yale College. 

Ynle College, July 27, 1825. 

The proposed publication of Familiar Lessons on As- 
tronomy, by Rev. Amos Pettengill, appears to me, consid- 
ered as an introduction to the studv of this entertaining- 
and useful science, well adapted to this design, and to 
lead the mind to profitable contemplation of the works of 
the Creator. NATH'L. W. TAYLOR, 

D wight Prof, of Didactic Theology in Yale College. 

Yale College, 28th July, 1825. 

Having cursorily looked over the " Familiar Lessons.** 
above-mentioned, I concur with Professor Tavlor in his 
favourable opinion of its merits. 

CLAUDIUS HERRICK. 

New-Haven, July 26, 1825. 

Having seen a manuscript, entitled " A View of the 
Heavens, or Familiar Lessons,' 1 &lc. by the Rev. Amos 
Pettengill, I am free to express my opinion in favour of 
its publication ; and mv belief that it will be highly useful 
as a school book. JOSHUA BATES, 

Pres. of Middlehury College. 

Middlebury College, August, 1825. 

Having cursorily examined the Rev. Amos Pettengill's 
" View of the Heavens, or Familiar Lessons" fee. I regard 
the design of hk work a happv one, and the execution of 
it judicious ; and do not hesitate to recommend it as a 
valuable assistant to parents and instructors in impress- 
ing upon the minds of youth the elements of the sublime 
and interesting science of Astronomy. I should be pleas- 



84 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

ed to see it in the possession of every family in our court 
trv. ABSALOM PETERS. 

Bennington, Vt. Aug. 12, 1825. 

I cheerfully concur in the sentiments expressed above. 

S. R. ARMS. 
Grafton, Vt. Aug. 25, 1825. 

Having examined to some extent the Rev. A. Petten- 
gill's " View of the Heavens," I fully concur in there- 
commendation given to it above. 

REUBEN S. HAZEN. 

West-Springfield, (Mass.) Aug. 31, 1825. 

Having heard read parts of " Familiar Lessons on As- 
tronomy," by Rev. Amos Pettengill, I have no hesitation 
in expressing my satisfaction with the work ; fully believ- 
ing it will prove a valuable introduction to the study of 
Astronomy. I sincerely wish its publication. 

BENJAMIN RICE. 

Deerfield, (Mass.) Aug. 30, 1825. 

Having heard read the principal parts of the Rev. 
Amos Pettengill's Familiar Lessons on Astronomy: the 
plan of the work I regard as judicious, and would cheer- 
fully recommend it as well adapted to give important in- 
formation on the subjects of which it treats. I should be 
happy to see it in general circulation. 

JONA. M'GEE. 

Brattleboro', Aug. 29, 1825. 

In addition to the foregoing, the following persons, be- 
ing ministers of the Gospel, in connection with the author, 
having examined the Treatise on Astronomy, have ex- 
pressed their decided approbation and cordial recom- 
mendation of the work. 

Rev. Mr. CONE. Bristol. 

Rev. Mr. WOOD, Cheshire, 

Rev. Mr. HART, Plymouth. 

Rev. Mr. GR1SWOLD, Watertown. 

Rev. Mr. CRANE, Waterbury. 

Rev. Mr. PRENTISE, Canaan. 

Rev. Mr. CAMP, Northfield. 














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